Learn how to plan and fly a VFR navigation flight, from preparing your route and navigation log to following your planned track and reaching your destination.
The objective is to develop the skills needed to read aeronautical charts, calculate headings and flight times, use visual checkpoints, correct for wind drift, and make safe navigation decisions during flight.
Review aeronautical charts, weather, airspace, aircraft performance, and the information needed to prepare a safe route.
Use headings, checkpoints, time, distance, and visual references to monitor your position and progress during flight.
Recognize wind drift, make track corrections, update your estimates, and respond safely when a diversion becomes necessary.
During a VFR cross-country flight, you need to know where you are, where you are going, and whether you can reach your destination safely. Good navigation starts before takeoff, with careful flight planning.
Wind can move an airplane away from its intended track. Groundspeed may also differ from the speed shown on the airspeed indicator. By comparing your planned route with what you see outside, you can identify errors and make corrections early.
GPS and electronic flight bags are useful navigation tools, but pilots must also understand charts, headings, distances, and visual checkpoints. These skills help you check your electronic navigation information and respond when a device or system is unavailable.
This lesson focuses on practical VFR navigation for student pilots. For a closer look at flight time, fuel use, and range planning, see Flight for Range and Endurance .
VFR Navigation Charts and Required Documents
Before a VFR navigation flight, you need current aeronautical charts and the appropriate aircraft documents. Charts help you identify airports, airspace, terrain, obstacles, and visual landmarks.
Always check the effective dates of your charts and publications. Document requirements depend on the aircraft, country, and type of flight.
VFR Charts Used in the United States
Sectional Aeronautical Chart
FAA Sectional Charts are used for visual cross-country navigation. They show airports, airspace, navigation aids, terrain, obstacles, and landmarks.
Terminal Area Chart (TAC)
Terminal Area Charts provide more detail around selected busy airports and terminal areas. They help pilots examine complex airspace and airport information more closely.
A VFR chart does not show every detail needed for an airport visit. The FAA Chart Supplement provides airport information such as runways, communications, services, and local procedures.
Check the current information for departure, destination, and possible diversion airports.
Official reference: FAA Chart Supplement.
NAV CANADA publishes VFR Navigation Charts (VNC) at a scale of 1:500,000. They are used for visual cross-country navigation.
VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA) provide more detail around selected busy terminal areas, at a scale of 1:250,000.
The Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) provides airport and operational information.
What Should You Look for on a VFR Chart?
Before using a chart for flight planning, make sure you can identify the following information.
Identify airports, airspace boundaries, controlled airspace, and areas with special restrictions.
Look for high terrain, towers, and other obstacles. Check charted elevations and obstacle heights.
Find lakes, roads, towns, rivers, and other features that can help you recognize your position.
Use the chart legend and the FAA Aeronautical Chart Users' Guide to understand unfamiliar symbols, colors, and abbreviations.
Aircraft Documents to Check Before Flight
Before departure, check the documents required for the aircraft and the planned operation. The list below also includes documents that become necessary for certain international or Canadian flights.
Confirms that the aircraft has the appropriate airworthiness approval. A valid certificate must be carried and displayed as required by U.S. regulations.
USA / CANADAIdentifies the aircraft's registration. Check that the required registration document is valid and on board.
USA / CANADAAn individual FCC aircraft station license is normally not required for ordinary domestic flights in the U.S. It may be required for international operations.
Canadian aircraft must carry a radio license or copy when one has been issued for equipment operated on board.
INTERNATIONAL / WHEN APPLICABLEProvides approved operating information, limitations, procedures, and performance data. Carry or have available the manual and limitations required for your aircraft.
USA / CANADAUse the aircraft's current weight and balance information to confirm that the planned loading remains within approved limits.
FLIGHT PREPARATIONKnow how to recognize and respond to an interception. This is especially important for international operations.
Use the applicable interception procedures and required aeronautical publications. Do not assume a separate "Interceptor Order" document is mandatory for every domestic VFR flight.
INTERNATIONAL / WHEN APPLICABLEThe pilot must have the required pilot certificate or license, medical qualification when applicable, and photo identification as required by the country of operation.
USA / CANADACanada requires applicable liability insurance, and pilots operating in Canadian airspace must be able to provide the required proof.
Insurance requirements for U.S. domestic operations may differ.
CANADA / WHEN APPLICABLEUnder Canadian rules, the aircraft journey log is normally carried on board. An exception may apply when the aircraft is not planned to land and shut down anywhere other than its departure point.
A standard U.S. domestic training flight does not have the same general journey logbook carriage requirement.
CANADAThis is a preparation checklist, not a universal list of documents that every aircraft must carry. Requirements depend on aircraft registration, the country of operation, and whether the flight is domestic or international.
Charts, navigation logs, and electronic flight bags are important planning tools. They do not replace required aircraft certificates or operating limitations.
Know which aeronautical charts cover your planned route. Understand their basic symbols and confirm that the aircraft and pilot documents required for your flight are available.
Weather, Airspace, and VFR Flight Planning
Before a VFR cross-country flight, check the weather along your route, review the airspace you may enter, and decide whether the flight can be completed safely.
Good weather at your departure airport does not guarantee suitable conditions everywhere. Weather can change during flight, especially near mountains, coastlines, and weather systems.
Weather Information for VFR Pilots
A weather briefing should include current conditions, forecasts, winds, and possible hazards. Use several sources rather than relying on a single report.
METAR
A METAR reports observed weather at an airport. It may include wind, visibility, cloud conditions, temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting.
TAF
A Terminal Aerodrome Forecast describes expected weather near an airport during its forecast period. Check forecasts for departure, destination, and other relevant airports.
Graphical Forecasts for Aviation
The FAA's Graphical Forecasts for Aviation help pilots review expected clouds, visibility, precipitation, and other weather conditions over a wider area.
Winds Aloft and Advisories
Review forecast winds and temperatures at your planned altitude. Check relevant advisories for thunderstorms, icing, turbulence, and other hazards.
ATIS provides current airport information and local weather where the service is available. It is useful before departure and arrival.
NOTAMs provide time-sensitive operational information, such as runway closures, navigation facility outages, and other hazards. They are not weather forecasts.
Official weather source: Aviation Weather Center .
Check the Weather Along Your Route
Compare conditions at different points along your route and at the time you expect to reach them.
Check wind, visibility, cloud ceiling, and runway conditions at your departure airport.
Review clouds, visibility, winds aloft, precipitation, and hazards across the route.
Check expected conditions around arrival time. Consider whether the airport may become unsuitable.
Identify airports where you could land if the route or destination becomes unsafe.
Basic VFR Weather Minimums — United States
FAA weather minimums depend on airspace class, altitude, and sometimes day or night. SM means statute miles. The following table summarizes basic VFR requirements for airplanes.
| Airspace | Visibility | Cloud clearance |
|---|---|---|
| Class B | 3 SM | Clear of clouds |
| Class C and D | 3 SM | 500 ft below / 1,000 ft above / 2,000 ft horizontal |
| Class E below 10,000 ft MSL | 3 SM | 500 / 1,000 / 2,000 |
| Class E at or above 10,000 ft MSL | 5 SM | 1,000 ft below / 1,000 ft above / 1 SM horizontal |
| Class G at or below 1,200 ft AGL — Day | 1 SM | Clear of clouds |
| Class G at or below 1,200 ft AGL — Night | 3 SM | 500 / 1,000 / 2,000 |
| Class G above 1,200 ft AGL and below 10,000 ft MSL — Day | 1 SM | 500 / 1,000 / 2,000 |
| Class G above 1,200 ft AGL and below 10,000 ft MSL — Night | 3 SM | 500 / 1,000 / 2,000 |
| Class G above 1,200 ft AGL and at or above 10,000 ft MSL | 5 SM | 1,000 ft below / 1,000 ft above / 1 SM horizontal |
Visual Guide — FAA VFR Cloud Clearance
The diagrams below show the position of the airplane relative to the clouds. The vertical spaces in each diagram are proportional to the stated clearance values. Horizontal distances use a separate illustrative scale.
In Class B airspace, remain clear of clouds with at least 3 statute miles of flight visibility. No fixed vertical or horizontal cloud separation is specified beyond remaining clear of clouds.
500 ft below the cloud above, 1,000 ft above the cloud below, and 2,000 ft horizontally from clouds beside the airplane.
1,000 ft below the cloud above, 1,000 ft above the cloud below, and 1 statute mile horizontally from clouds beside the airplane.
In Class G, visibility and cloud clearance change with altitude and time of day. At or below 1,200 feet AGL during the day, the basic airplane minimum is 1 SM and clear of clouds.
These are basic VFR minimums for airplanes. Additional conditions apply near certain airports, to student pilots, and to Special VFR operations. Class A does not permit ordinary VFR operations.
Official reference: 14 CFR § 91.155 .
Review the Airspace Before Departure
Your route may cross several airspace classes. Check communication, clearance, equipment, and weather requirements before selecting your route and altitude.
Know the Entry Requirements
Identify Class B, C, D, and relevant Class E airspace along your route. Know when ATC communication or clearance is required.
Class B requires an explicit ATC clearance. Establishing radio communication alone is not sufficient.
Check for Special-Use Airspace
Identify prohibited, restricted, warning, and military operations areas. Check their status and applicable requirements.
Review temporary flight restrictions and relevant NOTAMs.
Make a Go/No-Go Decision
Legal weather minimums are only the starting point. Weather can meet the regulations but still be unsuitable for your experience, airplane, or route.
Set personal weather limits based on your training, recent experience, terrain, airplane, and instructor's guidance.
If conditions are close to your limits, delay, change, or cancel the flight.
Canadian and U.S. VFR rules use different altitude boundaries and cloud-clearance distances. Canada also has specific rules for VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT) flights.
| Situation | United States — FAA | Canada — CARs |
|---|---|---|
| Controlled airspace — typical lower-altitude VFR | Class C, D and E below 10,000 ft MSL: 3 SM visibility; 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal. | 3 miles visibility; 500 ft vertically and 1 mile horizontally from clouds. Visual reference to the surface required. |
| Controlled airspace — Class B | 3 SM visibility; clear of clouds. | Canadian controlled-airspace VFR rules: 3 miles visibility; 500 ft vertically and 1 mile horizontally from clouds. |
| Uncontrolled airspace — low altitude, daytime | Class G at or below 1,200 ft AGL: 1 SM visibility; clear of clouds. | Below 1,000 ft AGL: normally 2 miles visibility for airplanes; clear of clouds. |
| Uncontrolled airspace — low altitude, night | Class G at or below 1,200 ft AGL: 3 SM visibility; 500 / 1,000 / 2,000, subject to the airport-pattern exception. | Below 1,000 ft AGL: 3 miles visibility; clear of clouds. |
| Uncontrolled airspace — higher altitude | Class G above 1,200 ft AGL: minimums depend on altitude and day or night. | At or above 1,000 ft AGL: 1 mile visibility by day, 3 miles at night; 500 ft vertically and 2,000 ft horizontally from clouds. |
| VFR Over-the-Top | VFR flight above a cloud layer may be possible while meeting applicable VFR requirements. FAA "VFR-on-top" is a separate IFR clearance procedure. | Specific VFR OTT privileges and conditions apply under CAR 602.116. Daytime cruise only; 5 SM flight visibility and at least 1,000 ft vertical cloud clearance. |
In Canada, normal VFR flight in controlled airspace requires visual reference to the surface. VFR OTT is a separate operation that may allow flight above a cloud layer without visual reference to the ground.
VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT)
VFR Over-the-Top allows a qualified pilot to fly above a cloud layer during the daytime cruise portion of a flight, without keeping the ground in sight.
Destination weather must also meet specific forecast requirements. These include no broken, overcast, or obscured cloud layer below 3,000 feet above the planned flight altitude, at least 5 miles of ground visibility, and no thunderstorms or precipitation.
For a destination TAF, the required forecast period extends from one hour before to two hours after the estimated arrival time. Different timing applies when an area forecast is used instead.
Canadian private pilots need the appropriate VFR OTT rating or other privileges that authorize this type of flight. VFR OTT is not permitted simply because the weather above the clouds is clear.
Official reference: CAR 602.116 — VFR OTT .
Canadian VFR regulations: CAR 602.114, CAR 602.115, and CAR 602.116.
Review current weather, forecasts, NOTAMs, airspace restrictions, VFR weather minimums, and available landing options. Make sure the conditions meet both the applicable regulations and your personal limits.
Aircraft Weight and Balance
Before every flight, confirm that the airplane is within its approved weight and balance limits. An overloaded or incorrectly balanced airplane may be difficult to control and may not perform as expected.
Correct weight and balance means that the maximum allowable weight is not exceeded and the center of gravity (CG) remains within its approved limits. Both conditions must be satisfied.
Understanding Weight and Center of Gravity
Maximum Allowable Weight
The total aircraft weight includes the airplane, occupants, baggage, equipment, and fuel.
Make sure the planned takeoff and landing weights remain within the approved limits.
Center of Gravity (CG)
The CG is the point at which the airplane's weight is considered to be concentrated.
Its position changes when passengers, baggage, or fuel are added, removed, or moved.
Weight, Arm, and Moment
Three values are used in a standard weight and balance calculation: weight, arm, and moment.
Weight is the load being carried. Arm is its distance from the aircraft's reference datum. Moment describes the turning effect of that weight around the datum.
Worked Example — Calculate the CG
The following example uses hypothetical values in pounds and inches. It illustrates the calculation method, not the approved loading limits of a specific airplane.
| Item | Weight (lb) | Arm (in) | Moment (lb-in) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Empty aircraft | 1,500 | 40 | 60,000 |
| Front occupants | 340 | 37 | 12,580 |
| Rear occupant | 120 | 73 | 8,760 |
| Baggage | 40 | 95 | 3,800 |
| Usable fuel (48 US gal) | 288 | 48 | 13,824 |
| Total | 2,288 | — | 98,964 |
First, add all the weights and moments. Then calculate the CG position:
The final step is to compare 2,288 lb and 43.25 in with the approved weight and CG envelope in the aircraft POH/AFM. A calculation alone does not establish that the loading is legal.
Fuel is consumed during flight, reducing the aircraft's total weight. Depending on fuel tank locations and the aircraft design, the CG may also move.
Check the loading conditions required by your POH/AFM, including takeoff and landing.
Forward and Aft Center of Gravity
An aircraft may be within its maximum weight limit but have a CG that is too far forward or aft. Both situations can affect handling and flight safety.
Center of Gravity Too Far Aft
An aft CG generally reduces longitudinal stability. The airplane may feel more sensitive in pitch, and stall recovery can become more difficult.
Beyond the aft CG limit, sufficient nose-down elevator authority may not be available for safe recovery.
Center of Gravity Too Far Forward
A forward CG generally increases longitudinal stability but can require greater elevator control force.
Rotation and landing flare may become more difficult. A forward CG can also increase stall speed and reduce performance.
An airplane that is outside its approved CG envelope is not correctly loaded, even if its total weight is below the maximum allowable weight.
Adjust passenger seating, baggage, or fuel loading as permitted by the aircraft limitations before departure.
Final Weight and Balance Check
Before departure, complete these checks using the aircraft's current weight and balance records.
Use the current aircraft records, including installed equipment.
Include occupants, baggage, equipment, and fuel.
Determine the total weight, total moment, and resulting CG.
Confirm that the aircraft remains within the permitted weight and CG envelope for the required stages of flight.
Always check both aircraft weight and center of gravity. Calculate the moments, determine the CG, and compare the result with the approved limits for your airplane.
Select Your Route and Navigation Checkpoints
Once you have reviewed the weather, aircraft documents, and weight and balance, the next step is to plan your route on a current VFR aeronautical chart.
Your goal is to select a practical route between two airports, recognize useful landmarks, identify airspace and terrain considerations, and divide the route into manageable navigation legs.
Our Example — A VFR Flight Across California
We will use this flight as an example throughout the navigation planning process. The airports are real, but the route, selected checkpoints, and flight data must be verified on current charts.
This example follows the general direction of California's Central Valley. Towns, roads, and other recognizable features offer possible visual checkpoints.
Step 1 — Locate the Airports on Your Sectional Chart
Open the current FAA Sectional Chart covering your flight area. Find the departure airport, destination, and surrounding terrain.
Before drawing the route, review both airports' information in the Chart Supplement. Identify any nearby controlled airspace, special-use airspace, or other restrictions that could affect your route.
Find KMOD and KFAT on the current San Francisco Sectional Chart. Review the airspace surrounding both airports. Do not assume that a straight line between them is automatically an acceptable route.
Official resources: FAA VFR Charts and FAA Chart Supplement.
Step 2 — Select a Practical Route
Start by drawing a light straight line between your departure and destination airports. Then examine whether the route needs to be changed.
Check controlled airspace boundaries, prohibited and restricted areas, military operations areas, and relevant temporary restrictions. Plan for the clearances, communication, and equipment required along the route.
Look for high terrain, towers, and other obstacles. Note the highest relevant elevations along each possible navigation leg.
Consider terrain clearance, airspace, expected clouds, and the direction of flight. Apply the relevant FAA altitude rules. Confirm the final altitude during aircraft performance planning.
Locate airports along or near your route that could provide an alternative if you need to change your plans. Check their suitability and available services.
At this stage, you are choosing where you intend to fly. Do not calculate final magnetic headings or groundspeeds yet. These calculations require the selected track, aircraft performance, and forecast winds.
Step 3 — Choose Your Set Heading Point
A set heading point (SHP) is a recognizable position from which you begin following a planned navigation leg.
Instead of starting your cross-country timing immediately after takeoff, you can navigate to a clearly identifiable point, establish your planned heading, and begin tracking your progress from there.
Look for a clear landmark outside the immediate airport traffic pattern, such as a distinctive road intersection, river crossing, or other charted feature. The point should be easy to recognize and compatible with local departure procedures and airspace requirements.
Step 4 — Select Visual Checkpoints
Checkpoints help you confirm that you are following your planned track. Choose features that are visible, easy to identify, and reasonably spaced along your route.
Major highways, railway junctions, and distinctive intersections can be useful references.
Recognizable towns and airfields can help establish your position. Check their exact charted locations.
Lakes, rivers, coastlines, reservoirs, and terrain features can provide strong visual references.
Examine Turlock, Merced, Madera, and the Highway 99 corridor as possible references. Their usefulness depends on the route you actually draw.
Do not force the airplane to fly directly over every town. Select checkpoints that support a safe, practical route and can be identified confidently from your intended altitude.
Step 5 — Draw the Route and Mark Your Checkpoints
Once the route is selected, draw the navigation legs on your chart. Use a ruler and a fine pencil or suitable digital planning tools.
Mark your planned departure route from the airport to the set heading point.
Connect the SHP to the next turning point or destination. Keep the route as simple as practical while considering airspace, terrain, and other restrictions.
Add distance references at suitable intervals, such as every 10 NM. Mark the midpoint of each leg and identify your selected checkpoints.
If using the paper-chart method, draw 10-degree drift lines from suitable reference points. These will help you recognize and estimate track errors during flight.
A simplified example of chart annotations. The blue line is the intended track, while the dashed lines illustrate 10-degree drift references. This drawing is not an aeronautical chart and is not intended for navigation.
Step 6 — Measure Distance and Determine True Course
For each planned navigation leg, measure the distance in nautical miles using the correct chart scale. A plotter can also be used to measure the true course.
The true course is the intended direction of the route measured clockwise from true north. Wind correction and magnetic variation will be applied later when calculating the actual heading to fly.
The line you draw on the chart gives your intended ground track. It does not automatically give the compass heading you will fly. Wind and magnetic effects must still be considered.
Step 7 — Prepare Your Route Information
Before moving to aircraft performance and wind calculations, record the basic information for each leg.
| Route Information | What to Record |
|---|---|
| Departure and destination | KMOD and KFAT for this example |
| Set heading point | Selected visual landmark near departure |
| Navigation legs | Route segments and turning points |
| Checkpoints | Recognizable visual references |
| Leg distances | Measured nautical miles |
| True course | Measured for each navigation leg |
| Terrain and obstacle information | Minimum safe altitude considerations |
| Airspace and radio information | Relevant requirements and frequencies |
| Other landing options | Suitable airports along or near the route |
Use current FAA aeronautical charts, airport information, NOTAMs, and applicable regulations. Check any restrictions and communication requirements affecting your chosen route.
The example route in this lesson is for training. Final tracks, distances, checkpoints, altitudes, and procedures must be established using current aeronautical information.
You should now have a planned route showing your set heading point, turning points, visual checkpoints, leg distances, and true courses. You should also know the main airspace and terrain considerations.
The next step is to use this route to calculate aircraft performance, including takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, and landing.
Calculate Aircraft Performance for Your Route
Your VFR route and checkpoints are now selected. The next step is to check whether your airplane can safely complete the planned flight under the expected conditions.
Use your aircraft's Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH) or Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) to determine takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, and landing performance.
We will continue using this California route throughout the lesson. The calculations shown below are training examples. Always use the performance charts and operating procedures for the specific airplane being flown.
Check Takeoff Performance
Begin at your departure airport. Determine whether your airplane can safely take off from the expected runway at KMOD.
Takeoff weight, pressure altitude, temperature, wind component, runway slope, and surface condition.
Expected ground roll and total takeoff distance to clear the specified obstacle height, when provided by the POH/AFM.
Read the applicable takeoff performance chart. Interpolate between values and apply any corrections specified by the manufacturer.
Ground roll is the distance traveled along the runway before liftoff. Total takeoff distance includes the distance required to reach the specified obstacle height, when that performance is published.
Compare the required takeoff distance with the runway distance available and allow an appropriate safety margin.
Calculate Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb
After takeoff, the airplane must climb to your selected cruising altitude. Before departure, you need to know approximately how long this climb will take, how much fuel it will use, and how far the airplane will travel.
Imagine you are planning our VFR flight from Modesto (KMOD) to Fresno (KFAT).
Modesto is close to sea level, and you have selected a cruising altitude of 5,500 ft MSL. The exact calculation will depend on the airport's pressure altitude and the conditions expected on the day.
- How many minutes will it take to reach cruising altitude?
- How much fuel will the climb consume?
- How many nautical miles will the airplane travel during the climb?
Step 1 — Understand the POH Climb Chart
Many aircraft POH climb charts provide cumulative time, fuel, and distance values from sea level to a specified pressure altitude.
This means that the figures shown at 5,500 ft can represent the entire climb from sea level to 5,500 ft, not just a portion of that climb.
Suppose the corrected POH chart for our hypothetical training airplane provides these values:
| Pressure Altitude | Total Time | Total Fuel | Total Distance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sea level | 0 min | 0 gal | 0 NM |
| 5,500 ft | 14 min | 1.8 gal | 18 NM |
If the airplane were departing from sea-level pressure altitude, reaching 5,500 ft pressure altitude would take approximately 14 minutes, consume 1.8 gallons, and cover 18 NM, under the assumptions of this example.
Step 2 — What If the Airport Is Above Sea Level?
Most airports are not exactly at sea level. If the chart gives cumulative values from sea level, you must remove the portion of the climb that would already have occurred below your departure pressure altitude.
For example, imagine you are departing from an airport with a pressure altitude of 1,000 ft and climbing to a pressure altitude of 5,500 ft.
The hypothetical chart gives:
| Pressure Altitude | Total Time from Sea Level | Total Fuel from Sea Level | Total Distance from Sea Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1,000 ft | 2 min | 0.3 gal | 2 NM |
| 5,500 ft | 14 min | 1.8 gal | 18 NM |
You are not climbing from sea level. Your climb starts at 1,000 ft. Therefore, subtract the values at 1,000 ft from those at 5,500 ft.
The climb will take approximately 12 minutes.
The climb will consume approximately 1.5 gallons.
The climb distance is approximately 16 NM under the chart assumptions.
Step 3 — Apply This to Our Flight from KMOD
KMOD is at approximately 100 ft field elevation, which is close to sea level. However, field elevation is not necessarily the same as pressure altitude.
For the actual flight, determine the departure pressure altitude using the airport elevation and altimeter setting. Determine the cruise pressure altitude using the expected atmospheric conditions.
Then read or interpolate the appropriate values in the aircraft's climb chart, following the published instructions.
Step 4 — Record the Results
Once you have calculated the climb, keep the three values for the next stages of flight planning:
- Climb time: estimate when the airplane will reach cruising altitude.
- Climb fuel: include fuel consumed during the climb in the flight's fuel plan.
- Climb distance: estimate where along the route the airplane will reach cruising altitude.
The numbers above are hypothetical and do not come from the displayed POH chart. Use the specific aircraft data and apply all published corrections.
Climb charts may use a particular wind assumption. A headwind reduces ground distance covered during a given climb time, while a tailwind increases it.
Follow the POH instructions and account for forecast winds before using climb distance in your navigation plan.
Determine Cruise Performance
Once the airplane reaches cruising altitude, you need to know its expected speed and fuel consumption at the selected power setting.
True airspeed is the airplane's speed through the surrounding air.
You will combine TAS with forecast winds to calculate the expected groundspeed and heading for each navigation leg.
Fuel flow is the amount of fuel the airplane consumes per hour at the selected cruise power setting, expressed in gallons per hour (GPH).
For example, 8 GPH means the airplane consumes approximately 8 gallons of fuel per hour at that power setting.
You will use this figure to calculate cruise fuel requirements once the enroute flight times are known.
At this stage, record the TAS and cruise fuel flow from the POH. We are not calculating the final groundspeed yet, because that requires wind correction for the planned route.
Plan the Descent
Before arriving at KFAT, determine approximately when you should begin descending from cruising altitude.
A planned descent allows you to reach the appropriate arrival altitude without needing a rushed or unnecessarily steep descent.
Suppose you need to lose 4,000 ft before reaching your planned arrival altitude.
You select an average descent rate of 500 ft/min, consistent with your airplane's operating guidance.
Assume an average descent groundspeed of 100 kt.
You would need approximately 13 NM to complete this descent under the assumed conditions.
This estimate does not include additional distance for arrival procedures, traffic sequencing, or maneuvering. Refine it using the expected wind, aircraft guidance, and planned arrival.
Simplified flight profile showing climb, cruise, and descent. Not drawn to scale.
Check Landing Performance
The final performance check concerns the destination airport. Use the aircraft's expected landing weight and the conditions forecast at KFAT.
Determine the expected distance from touchdown to a complete stop under the specified chart conditions.
Where published, determine the landing distance from the specified obstacle height to a complete stop.
Consider landing weight, pressure altitude, temperature, wind, runway slope, and runway surface condition. Apply the POH/AFM corrections and appropriate safety margins.
Compare the calculated landing distance with the landing distance available. Higher weight, tailwind, high density altitude, and unfavorable runway conditions may increase the landing distance.
Record Your Aircraft Performance Data
At the end of this stage, collect the results that you will need when completing your navigation calculations.
| Flight Phase | Value to Record | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Takeoff | Ground roll and total takeoff distance | POH/AFM takeoff chart |
| Climb | Time, fuel, and distance to cruising altitude | POH/AFM climb chart |
| Cruise | True airspeed and fuel flow | POH/AFM cruise chart |
| Descent | Estimated descent time, ground distance, and fuel allowance | Aircraft guidance, performance data, and planning calculations |
| Landing | Landing ground roll and total landing distance | POH/AFM landing chart |
Under 14 CFR § 91.103 , pilots must become familiar with the available information concerning the planned flight, including applicable runway and performance information.
You should now have checked takeoff and landing performance, calculated the expected climb, selected cruise TAS and fuel flow, and estimated the descent.
The next step is to combine your planned true courses, aircraft TAS, and forecast winds to calculate headings, groundspeeds, and estimated flight times for each navigation leg.
Calculate Headings, Groundspeed, and Flight Times
You have drawn your route on the sectional chart and selected a cruising true airspeed (TAS) from your aircraft's performance data. Now you must calculate the heading to fly, the expected groundspeed, and the time required for each navigation leg.
Before using the E6B flight computer, review the navigation terms and speeds you will use during these calculations.
Navigation Terms — From Track to Heading
Track describes the direction of movement over the ground. Heading describes the direction the airplane's nose points. Wind can make the two directions different.
| Order | Navigation Term | Definition | Use in Flight Planning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | True Course (TC) | The direction of the intended ground track, measured clockwise from true north. | Draw the route on the sectional chart and measure the true course. |
| 2 | True Heading (TH) | The direction the airplane's nose points, measured clockwise from true north. | Apply the wind correction angle to the true course. |
| 3 | Magnetic Variation | The angular difference between true north and magnetic north. | Use the charted variation to convert true directions to magnetic directions. Subtract east variation; add west variation. |
| 4 | Magnetic Course / Track | A ground-track direction measured relative to magnetic north. | Convert the true course to a magnetic course. This still describes the route, not the direction the nose points. |
| 5 | Magnetic Heading (MH) | The direction the airplane's nose points, measured clockwise from magnetic north. | Convert true heading using magnetic variation. This is the heading normally used with magnetic navigation references. |
| 6 | Compass Deviation | Magnetic compass error caused by magnetic influences in the airplane. | Use the aircraft's compass correction card. |
| 7 | Compass Heading (CH) | The heading indication required on the aircraft's magnetic compass, after accounting for deviation. | Use this indication when navigating by the magnetic compass. |
Imagine your planned true course is 150°. With no crosswind, your true heading may also be 150°.
If a crosswind pushes the airplane to the left, you must point its nose slightly to the right to remain on the planned ground track.
The actual track is the path the airplane really follows. It may differ from the planned course if your wind correction is inaccurate.
Navigation Speeds — IAS, CAS, TAS, and GS
These four speeds have different meanings. During navigation planning, the most important distinction is between true airspeed and groundspeed.
| Order | Speed | Definition | Use in Navigation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | IAS — Indicated Airspeed | The airspeed displayed on the airplane's airspeed indicator. | Used to fly the airplane at the appropriate climb, cruise, or approach indicated airspeed. |
| 2 | CAS — Calibrated Airspeed | IAS corrected for instrument and position errors. | Use the aircraft's airspeed calibration chart when CAS is needed. |
| 3 | TAS — True Airspeed | The airplane's speed relative to the surrounding air mass. | Obtain TAS from the aircraft's performance data or appropriate airspeed corrections. Enter TAS into the E6B. |
| 4 | GS — Groundspeed | The airplane's speed relative to the ground. | Determine groundspeed using TAS and forecast wind. Use GS to calculate leg times and fuel consumption. |
Use TAS together with the forecast wind and true course. The E6B then gives you groundspeed and the wind correction angle.
Do not use indicated airspeed as groundspeed when calculating navigation times.
From Your Chart to the Compass
The navigation calculation follows this practical sequence:
To calculate flight time, use a second sequence: TAS + Wind → E6B → GS → Time → Fuel.
Step 1 — Gather Your Navigation Data
We will continue planning our example cross-country flight from Modesto (KMOD) to Fresno (KFAT).
For this exercise, we will use one hypothetical navigation leg. These are practice values, not actual chart measurements or current weather forecasts.
We want to follow a true course of 150°. The wind comes from 240°, which is 90° to the right of the intended course. It will tend to push the airplane left.
We must calculate how much to turn into the wind and how fast the airplane will travel over the ground.
Step 2 — Use the Wind Side of the E6B
A mechanical E6B flight computer has a calculator side and a wind side. Turn it to the wind side, which has a rotating compass rose, a sliding grid, and speed arcs.
Set Wind Direction
Rotate the compass rose until 240°, the direction from which the wind blows, is under the TRUE INDEX.
Mark Wind Speed
Locate the center hole (grommet). Using the speed scale, mark a pencil dot 20 kt above the grommet.
Set True Course
Rotate the compass rose until 150°, your true course, appears under the TRUE INDEX.
Set True Airspeed
Slide the grid until the wind dot lies on the 110 kt true airspeed arc.
Read Wind Correction
Read the wind dot's position relative to the center line. The correction is approximately 10° right.
Read Groundspeed
Without changing the setting, read the speed beneath the center grommet. This is the groundspeed.
Wind correction angle. Point the nose into the wind.
Expected groundspeed for this navigation leg.
Practice Navigation with a Flight Computer
A mechanical E6B is a practical training tool for learning wind correction, groundspeed, flight time, and fuel calculations. Explore mechanical and electronic flight computers at PilotMall.
Explore Flight ComputersStep 3 — Calculate True Heading
The E6B gives a wind correction angle of approximately 10° right. Add this correction to the true course.
You should plan to fly approximately 160° true heading to maintain the intended 150° ground track.
A wind from the right requires a right wind correction. A wind from the left requires a left wind correction.
Use the E6B to determine both the size and direction of the required correction.
Step 4 — Convert True Heading to Magnetic Heading
True north and magnetic north are not in exactly the same direction. The angular difference is called magnetic variation.
Find the applicable magnetic variation on your current aeronautical chart.
Subtract east variation from true heading.
Add west variation to true heading.
Suppose the applicable magnetic variation is 13° east. This is a hypothetical example value, not a current chart reading for KMOD–KFAT.
The calculated magnetic heading is approximately 147°.
Step 5 — Apply Compass Deviation
Magnetic influences inside the aircraft can affect the magnetic compass. The resulting error is called compass deviation.
Read the aircraft's compass correction card to determine the correct compass indication for the desired magnetic heading.
Suppose the aircraft's compass card shows that a desired magnetic heading of 147° requires a compass indication of 149°.
This is a hypothetical correction. Always use the actual compass card of the aircraft being flown.
Step 6 — Calculate Estimated Time Enroute
The E6B has already given you a groundspeed of approximately 108 kt. You can now calculate the time needed to fly the 36 NM leg.
Use the calculator side of the E6B or the basic time-distance calculation.
The estimated time enroute for this leg is 20 minutes.
Step 7 — Calculate Cruise Fuel for the Leg
Use the expected cruise fuel flow obtained from the aircraft's POH/AFM during performance planning.
For this example, suppose the airplane uses 8.0 gallons per hour at the chosen cruise setting.
The estimated cruise fuel consumption is approximately 2.7 gallons.
This calculation covers only the example cruise leg. Total flight planning must also account for other flight phases, applicable legal fuel reserves, and appropriate additional margins.
Record Your Navigation Calculations
Repeat the E6B procedure for each leg of the planned route. A different true course may produce a different wind correction, heading, and groundspeed.
| Navigation Item | Example Result | Source or Method |
|---|---|---|
| True Course | 150° | Hypothetical chart measurement |
| Leg Distance | 36 NM | Hypothetical chart measurement |
| True Airspeed | 110 kt | Hypothetical aircraft performance |
| Forecast Wind | 240° / 20 kt | Hypothetical true wind forecast |
| Wind Correction Angle | 10° right | E6B wind side, rounded |
| Groundspeed | 108 kt | E6B wind side, rounded |
| True Heading | 160° | 150° + 10° |
| Magnetic Variation | 13° east | Hypothetical chart value |
| Magnetic Heading | 147° | 160° − 13° |
| Compass Heading | 149° | Hypothetical compass card |
| Estimated Time | 20 min | 36 NM at 108 kt |
| Estimated Cruise Fuel | 2.7 gal | 20 minutes at 8 GPH |
The FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge is an essential reference for student pilots. It covers pilotage, dead reckoning, wind correction, magnetic variation, and cross-country flight planning.
For each navigation leg, you should now know the intended true course, wind correction angle, true heading, magnetic heading, compass heading, expected groundspeed, estimated time, and cruise fuel consumption.
In the next chapter, we will transfer these values into the VFR Flight Planner, together with the selected checkpoints, climb and descent calculations, and fuel reserves.
Complete Your VFR Flight Planner
You have selected your route, identified visual checkpoints, checked aircraft performance, and calculated headings and groundspeeds. Now bring this information together in a VFR navigation log or flight planner.
A completed navigation log helps you follow your planned route, check progress, update estimated arrival times, and monitor fuel during the flight.
A VFR navigation log is your working document for the flight. It normally includes route legs, checkpoints, true courses, headings, distances, groundspeeds, flight times, and fuel estimates.
Different flight-planning forms may arrange these items in different columns, but the planning method remains the same.
Start with the Flight Planner
The original StudyFlight lesson includes the following flight-planning illustration. Use it as a visual reference while organizing your calculations.
Step 1 — Enter Your Route and Checkpoints
Begin with the route you selected on your sectional chart. Enter your departure airport, destination airport, and each intermediate checkpoint in the order you expect to pass them.
Departure
Record KMOD, the intended runway, departure procedures, and your set heading point (SHP), if used.
Enroute Checkpoints
Enter recognizable landmarks, towns, roads, or other checkpoints verified on your current chart.
Leg Distances
Measure the distance between consecutive checkpoints in nautical miles (NM).
Destination
Record KFAT, the intended arrival information, and appropriate alternate landing options.
The numbers in the examples below are hypothetical. They are not measured distances or verified flight-planning data for KMOD–KFAT.
Do not transfer them directly into a real navigation log.
Step 2 — Transfer Your Heading Calculations
For each planned leg, transfer the results calculated with the E6B in the previous chapter.
| Navigation Log Column | What to Enter | Where It Comes From |
|---|---|---|
| TC | True Course | Measured on the sectional chart |
| WCA | Wind Correction Angle | E6B wind side |
| TH | True Heading | TC corrected for wind |
| VAR | Magnetic Variation | Current aeronautical chart |
| MH | Magnetic Heading | TH corrected for variation |
| CH | Compass Heading, if recorded | Aircraft compass correction card |
| GS | Groundspeed | E6B calculation |
In the previous chapter, we calculated a hypothetical leg using the following values.
| TC | WCA | TH | VAR | MH | GS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 150° | 10° R | 160° | 13° E | 147° | 108 kt |
The magnetic variation is illustrative. For an actual flight, use the variation shown on your current chart.
Step 3 — Enter Estimated Time for Each Leg
Use the planned distance and groundspeed to calculate estimated time enroute (ETE). The result tells you how long it should take to reach the next checkpoint.
Our example cruise leg is 36 NM long, with a planned groundspeed of 108 kt.
Enter 20 min as the planned ETE for this leg.
Repeat the calculation for each leg using its own distance and groundspeed.
Step 4 — Account for Climb, Cruise, and Descent
Your entire flight is not conducted at cruising altitude. Before calculating total flight time and fuel, account for the climb and descent phases.
Use the climb data obtained from the POH, your calculated cruise-leg information, and your planned descent.
Suppose the hypothetical airplane has the following performance estimates. These figures are for learning the method, not an actual KMOD–KFAT flight.
| Flight Phase | Time | Fuel | Distance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Climb | 14 min | 1.8 gal | 18 NM |
| Cruise | 20 min | 2.7 gal | 36 NM |
| Descent | 8 min | 0.8 gal | 13 NM |
| Flight Total | 42 min | 5.3 gal | 67 NM |
The example assumes that the 36 NM leg represents the cruise portion and that the climb and descent occur outside that cruise segment.
For your actual route, use the distances measured on the chart. Avoid counting climb or descent distance twice. The descent fuel allowance is hypothetical and must be replaced by appropriate aircraft performance data.
Step 5 — Calculate Estimated Departure and Arrival Times
Once you know the total estimated flight time, you can calculate the expected arrival time (ETA).
Use the planned takeoff time when calculating flight time from takeoff to landing. If your planner uses departure from parking, account separately for taxi and other ground operations.
Assume the airplane takes off at 10:00 local time and the estimated flying time is 42 minutes.
The estimated arrival time is 10:42 local time.
During the flight, compare actual checkpoint times with planned times and update your ETA if necessary.
Step 6 — Calculate Total Fuel Requirements
Fuel planning must cover the expected flight and provide sufficient fuel for the required legal reserve, together with appropriate additional margins.
For a typical U.S. VFR airplane operation, 14 CFR § 91.151 requires enough fuel to reach the first intended landing point and then fly at normal cruising speed for at least:
The legal requirement is expressed as additional flying time at normal cruising speed, not as a fixed number of gallons for every aircraft.
Convert the required time into fuel using the relevant cruise fuel consumption. More restrictive operating requirements may also apply.
Continue with our hypothetical aircraft. Assume a cruise fuel flow of 8.0 GPH and a planned flight fuel requirement of 5.3 gallons.
| Fuel Item | Calculation | Fuel |
|---|---|---|
| Climb | From performance planning | 1.8 gal |
| Cruise | 20 min at 8.0 GPH | 2.7 gal |
| Descent | Illustrative allowance | 0.8 gal |
| Taxi and Ground Operations | Illustrative allowance | 0.5 gal |
| Day VFR Reserve | 30 min at 8.0 GPH | 4.0 gal |
| Additional Margin | Example: 20% of planned trip fuel (5.8 gal) | 1.2 gal |
| Total Planned Fuel | 5.8 + 4.0 + 1.2 | 11.0 gal |
In this example, we need 11.0 gallons of usable fuel for the planned trip, day VFR reserve, and additional margin.
The 20% contingency is an additional planning choice, not the FAA minimum reserve requirement. It does not replace the 30-minute day VFR reserve.
Compare your total planned fuel requirement with the usable fuel available in the aircraft. Account for the actual fuel on board, aircraft limitations, and weight and balance.
If the planned route, winds, destination weather, or fuel requirements make the flight unsuitable, revise the plan before departure.
Step 7 — Add Frequencies and Airport Information
Your navigation log should also make it easy to find the information needed during the departure, enroute, and arrival phases.
Relevant ATIS or AWOS information, clearance delivery where applicable, ground, tower, and departure frequencies.
Relevant airspace boundaries, communication frequencies, checkpoints, and suitable landing options.
Arrival frequencies, airport information, expected runway, and applicable arrival procedures.
Suitable airports or landing options along the route, their limitations, and relevant contact information.
Verify airport information using current charts, NOTAMs, and the FAA Chart Supplement. Do not rely on frequencies or airport data copied from an old example.
Step 8 — Review the Completed Navigation Log
Before departure, check that the route, aircraft performance, weather, and navigation calculations agree.
| Planning Item | Final Check |
|---|---|
| Route and Checkpoints | Verified on current charts |
| Airspace and Terrain | Route and altitude appropriate |
| Weather and NOTAMs | Current briefing reviewed |
| Weight and Balance | Within aircraft limitations |
| Takeoff and Landing Performance | Suitable for expected conditions |
| Headings and Groundspeeds | Calculated for each navigation leg |
| Flight Times and ETA | Calculated and recorded |
| Fuel | Trip fuel, legal reserves, and margins checked |
| Frequencies and Airports | Current information available |
Step 9 — File and Activate a VFR Flight Plan
Completing your personal navigation log does not mean you have filed a VFR flight plan with Flight Service.
For VFR operations in the United States, the FAA strongly recommends filing a VFR flight plan to support search and rescue services. A filed plan must be activated to receive those services.
File
Submit the VFR flight plan through an appropriate Flight Service or authorized filing method.
Activate
Open the flight plan using an appropriate method when the flight begins.
Update
Report significant changes when required, including changes affecting the filed plan.
Close
Close your active VFR flight plan after landing. An active plan does not automatically close when you arrive.
Receiving ATC flight following is not the same as having an active VFR flight plan. Follow current FAA procedures for filing, activating, and closing a VFR flight plan.
See FAA AIM Chapter 5, Section 1 for flight plan procedures.
Your navigation log should now contain the route, visual checkpoints, charted courses, calculated headings, groundspeeds, estimated times, aircraft performance, fuel planning, and relevant frequencies.
Next, we will move from flight planning to flying the route: departure procedures, the set heading point, checkpoint identification, and enroute navigation.
Departure and Enroute Navigation
Your navigation log is complete. You have calculated the headings, groundspeeds, checkpoint times, and fuel requirements for your planned flight.
Now you must use that plan in the airplane. Successful pilot navigation requires more than following a heading: you must identify your position, confirm your ground track, monitor your progress, and adjust the plan when conditions change.
1. Choose Your Departure Method
Before takeoff, decide how you will join your planned navigation route. The original StudyFlight lesson describes three common techniques: overhead departure, enroute climb, and departure via a set heading point.
The appropriate method depends on the airport, departure instructions, terrain, airspace, weather, and available visual references.
Overhead Departure
After departure, maneuver as permitted to establish the planned track near or over the departure airport.
AdvantageThe airport provides a recognizable position reference, particularly in unfamiliar terrain.
LimitationAdditional maneuvering increases flight time and fuel consumption. Airport traffic and ATC instructions may make this technique inappropriate.
Enroute Climb
After takeoff, climb while joining the intended route as permitted by terrain clearance and ATC.
AdvantageOften provides a direct transition from departure to the planned route.
LimitationThe pilot must manage the climb and track interception together. It is possible to overshoot the intended track.
Set Heading Point (SHP)
Navigate first to a distinct, charted landmark near the airport. Begin the planned navigation leg from that known position.
AdvantageProvides a clear reference point for starting navigation timing and confirming the intended track.
LimitationRequires a suitable landmark. The departure to that point must still comply with airspace, terrain, and ATC requirements.
For our KMOD–KFAT example, we will demonstrate the Set Heading Point method.
The actual SHP must be selected and verified on your current sectional chart before the flight. We are not assuming that an arbitrary landmark near Modesto is suitable.
KMOD is a towered airport. Follow applicable clearances, instructions, runway departure procedures, and airspace requirements.
Do not maneuver overhead, turn toward a checkpoint, or begin a navigation leg in conflict with ATC instructions or safe obstacle clearance.
2. Prepare for Takeoff
Before departure, ensure that the navigation log and chart are ready for use. Review the intended departure, initial heading, airspace boundaries, and first checkpoint.
Keep the initial heading, checkpoint sequence, leg times, and frequencies accessible.
Identify the departure airport, planned SHP, first route leg, and nearby airspace.
Set the appropriate altimeter setting. Check heading references according to aircraft procedures.
Review the intended departure, expected climb, weather, terrain, and actions if the route cannot be followed.
3. Complete the Set Heading Procedure
Once safely established after departure, proceed toward the chosen set heading point, consistent with the departure clearance and flight conditions.
At the SHP, confirm your position, establish the planned heading, and begin timing the navigation leg.
Confirm Your Position
Positively identify the selected set heading point and confirm that it matches the chart.
Check Heading Instruments
Verify the heading indication against the magnetic compass as appropriate for your aircraft, allowing for known compass errors.
Record SHP Time
Note the time you pass the set heading point. Use it as the start time for the next planned leg.
Establish Planned Heading
Turn to the calculated heading when safe and permitted. Confirm that the aircraft begins following the intended ground track.
Complete Cruise Setup
At the appropriate altitude, establish cruise power and configure the aircraft according to its POH/AFM, including mixture procedures where applicable.
Check Track and ETA
Compare the observed track with the charted route. Check progress toward the first checkpoint and review the ETA.
Suppose you pass your selected set heading point at 10:08 local time.
Your planned ETE to the next checkpoint is 12 minutes.
Record 10:20 as the estimated time over the next checkpoint.
These times are illustrative, not actual timings for KMOD–KFAT.
4. Maintain Your Planned Track
Once established on the route, maintain the planned heading while confirming the aircraft's actual progress using recognizable visual references.
A heading alone does not confirm that the airplane is following the planned track. Wind may change, and the aircraft may drift away from the charted route.
Position the chart so the direction of travel is easy to visualize. Compare features on the map with the terrain outside.
Use towns, major highways, rivers, airports, and other charted features to confirm your position.
Recheck the heading indicator against the magnetic compass at suitable intervals, following aircraft procedures.
Compare your actual position with the intended chart line. If you are off track, determine an appropriate correction.
Pilotage uses visible ground references to establish position. Dead reckoning estimates position from heading, groundspeed, and elapsed time.
During a VFR cross-country flight, compare your dead-reckoning position with positively identified visual checkpoints.
Suitable electronic navigation equipment can provide an additional cross-check, but does not replace the need to maintain situational awareness.
5. Update Your ETA at Each Checkpoint
Each checkpoint gives you an opportunity to compare your planned progress with the actual flight.
Record the actual time over a positively identified checkpoint. If the actual leg time differs from the estimated time, assess whether the wind or groundspeed differs from your plan.
You departed the SHP at 10:08. You expected to reach the next checkpoint at 10:20, but you actually reached it at 10:22.
The actual leg took two minutes longer than planned. Suppose its charted distance was 21 NM.
You can now use the observed groundspeed as one input when estimating the next checkpoint time.
For example, if the next leg is 18 NM and you estimate a groundspeed of 90 kt:
Your revised ETA for the next checkpoint would be 10:34.
A different course may produce a different wind component. The observed groundspeed on one leg should not automatically be used for every remaining leg.
Reassess the expected wind and use the appropriate groundspeed for each segment.
6. Keep Your Navigation Log Updated
Your flight planner becomes a record of actual flight progress. Update it each time you confirm a checkpoint or revise an estimate.
| Checkpoint | Planned Time | Actual Time | Next ETA |
|---|---|---|---|
| Set Heading Point | 10:08 | 10:08 | 10:20 |
| Checkpoint 1 | 10:20 | 10:22 | 10:34 revised |
| Checkpoint 2 | 10:34 revised | Record in flight | Calculate from actual progress |
This is a simplified timing example. In a complete navigation log, you should also monitor headings, fuel remaining, actual progress, and any required route changes.
7. Perform Regular Enroute Checks
Navigation is only one part of managing the flight. Continue normal aircraft checks and maintain awareness of changing conditions.
Monitor engine instruments, fuel indications, aircraft performance, and any checklist items required during cruise.
Compare observed weather with the preflight forecast. Obtain updated weather information when appropriate and available.
Monitor the appropriate ATC or advisory frequency and comply with applicable communication requirements.
Continue scanning for terrain, obstacles, nearby airports, and suitable emergency landing options.
Use the principle: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate.
Maintain aircraft control and situational awareness before making detailed log entries or recalculating flight estimates.
8. Prepare for Descent and Arrival
As you approach KFAT, use the descent planning completed in the aircraft performance chapter. Confirm the destination weather, expected runway, available airport information, and relevant ATC instructions.
Review Arrival Information
Obtain current destination weather and the appropriate airport and ATC information.
Complete Descent Checks
Secure the cabin, review aircraft configuration, and follow the applicable descent checklist.
Start the Planned Descent
Descend according to the aircraft operating guidance, terrain clearance, airspace restrictions, and ATC instructions.
Contact ATC
Establish the required communication with the appropriate approach or tower facility and follow instructions.
Join the Arrival
Follow the appropriate arrival and traffic-pattern instructions, complete landing checks, and land.
Close the VFR Flight Plan
If you activated a VFR flight plan, ensure it is properly closed after landing using an appropriate Flight Service method.
Do not assume a standard traffic-pattern entry or a fixed descent rate at every airport.
Follow the applicable airport procedures, aircraft checklists, and ATC instructions.
An active VFR flight plan is not automatically closed simply because the airplane has landed.
9. Review the Enroute Navigation Sequence
The following table summarizes the chronological flow of a typical VFR cross-country flight.
| Flight Phase | Navigation Task | What to Record or Verify |
|---|---|---|
| Before Takeoff | Brief departure and route | Initial heading, SHP, airspace |
| Departure | Climb and follow departure instructions | Aircraft position and safe route |
| Set Heading Point | Establish planned heading and timing | Time over SHP, initial ETA |
| First Navigation Leg | Maintain and verify ground track | Heading, observed landmarks |
| Each Checkpoint | Confirm position and progress | Actual time, revised ETA |
| Enroute Cruise | Monitor airplane, fuel, weather, and airspace | Remaining fuel and conditions |
| Descent | Prepare aircraft and arrival | Altitude, position, ATC instructions |
| Landing | Complete arrival and close active VFR flight plan | Arrival and flight plan status |
A navigation plan is only useful if you continuously compare it with what is happening during the flight.
Start from a known position, establish the planned heading, identify visual checkpoints, monitor elapsed time and groundspeed, and update the navigation log as conditions change.
In the next section, we will study how to correct a track error when the airplane drifts away from the planned route, including the opening and closing angle method and the double track error method.
Correcting Track Errors and Wind Drift
You are flying your planned navigation leg and checking your position against the sectional chart. Suddenly, you notice that the airplane is not following the route you drew.
This is a track error. It may result from an incorrect heading, changing wind, an inaccurate wind correction, or an error in maintaining the planned heading.
Before making a correction, answer three questions:
Where am I? Identify your actual position using reliable visual references.
Where should I be? Compare your position with the planned line on your chart.
How should I correct? Choose a suitable technique based on your position and the remaining distance.
Understanding Track Error
Remember that heading is the direction the airplane's nose points, while track is the direction the airplane actually travels over the ground.
When the wind correction is incorrect, the airplane can drift to one side even while the pilot maintains a constant heading.
Suppose your planned magnetic heading is 150°, but you discover that the airplane is drifting to the left of the route.
To correct this deviation, you need a heading change to the right. The amount depends on whether you want to regain the original track or proceed directly to a future point.
Choosing a Track Correction Method
The original StudyFlight lesson introduces three practical methods. Each answers a slightly different navigation problem.
Visual Alteration
Navigate toward a clearly identified landmark on your planned track, then resume navigation from that known position.
Double Track Error
When still sufficiently early in the leg, use approximately twice the observed track error to intercept the original track.
Opening and Closing Angles
When continuing toward a destination or checkpoint is more practical than returning to the original track, use opening and closing angles.
Method 1 — Visual Alteration
Visual alteration is the most intuitive of the three methods. Instead of calculating an exact angle, you use a prominent visual reference to regain a known position.
Identify Your Position
Locate the airplane using two or more recognizable charted landmarks when possible.
Select a Landmark
Choose a suitable, clearly identifiable feature on or near the intended track.
Rejoin and Continue
Navigate to the selected reference when safe, then resume the planned route with an appropriate heading and wind correction.
During the KMOD–KFAT exercise, suppose you recognize a town that is clearly marked on the current sectional chart.
You confirm your position and select a suitable charted feature along the route. If safe and appropriate, navigate toward that feature.
Once positively overhead or abeam the selected reference, update your position, heading, time, and next checkpoint ETA.
Visual alteration requires positive identification. A feature that merely resembles something on the chart is not enough to establish position.
Any revised track must also respect terrain, obstacles, airspace, and ATC instructions.
Method 2 — Double Track Error
The double track error method is used to regain the original planned track during the early part of a navigation leg.
It is based on a simple principle: if the airplane has moved away from the intended track at a certain angle, approximately twice that angle in the opposite direction can bring it back to the track over a similar period of time.
Imagine you are in the early part of a navigation leg. Your planned magnetic heading is 150°.
By comparing your position with the chart and the 10° drift reference lines, you estimate a 5° track error to the left.
First — Double the Error
Because you are left of track, turn to the right.
Fly approximately 160° magnetic while monitoring your position relative to the original route.
Next — Regain the Planned Track
Under the simplified assumptions of this method, the time required to regain the track is approximately equal to the time spent drifting away.
However, do not turn solely because that amount of time has passed. Confirm the intercept using charted landmarks or appropriate navigation equipment.
Finally — Maintain the Track
Once the airplane has regained the planned track, remove the additional intercept correction.
In this simplified example, 155° magnetic is the estimated corrected heading to maintain the intended track.
Continue checking the actual ground track and refine the heading as necessary.
The original 5° error has already carried the airplane away from the intended route.
The 10° heading change is intended to both counter the estimated drift and create an approximately equal angle back toward the route.
After interception, only the estimated 5° wind correction remains necessary.
The traditional double track error method is most useful before the halfway point, when enough distance remains to regain the original track.
It is an approximation. Changing winds, varying groundspeed, or inaccurate position estimates can affect the result.
Method 3 — Opening and Closing Angles
If you discover the error later in the navigation leg, returning to the original track may be inefficient.
Instead, you may decide to proceed directly toward the next positively identified checkpoint or destination.
The opening and closing angle method uses your position relative to the planned route to estimate the heading correction.
Locate Your Position
Positively determine where the airplane is in relation to the intended track and remaining destination.
Estimate Opening Angle
Use the chart's drift reference lines to estimate the angle between the planned track and your actual position relative to the departure point.
Estimate Closing Angle
Determine the angle needed to turn from your present position toward the intended destination or checkpoint.
You discover that you are left of the planned route, and you are already beyond the halfway point.
Using the chart, you estimate:
Since you are left of the route, the correction is to the right.
In the simplified method used in the original lesson, if your current reference heading is 150°:
The estimated heading becomes 163°. This example assumes that the opening angle represents the accumulated drift relative to the existing heading.
In an actual flight, independently verify the bearing from your present position to the intended point and account for the expected wind.
The opening angle describes how far the actual path has diverged from the planned track.
The closing angle describes the additional turn needed to aim from the present position toward the intended point.
Unlike double track error, the goal is not necessarily to rejoin the original track before reaching the destination.
Using 10° Drift Lines
When preparing a paper navigation chart, pilots may draw reference lines at 10° to either side of the planned course.
These lines provide a visual scale for estimating how far the airplane has drifted from the intended route.
Mark the Route
Draw the intended navigation leg between the selected departure reference and its destination.
Draw 10° References
From the departure point, draw lines 10° to the left and right of the intended track.
Estimate the Error
Compare your positively identified position with the reference lines to estimate the opening angle.
For the opening and closing angle method, additional 10° references from the destination point can help estimate the closing angle.
The 10° lines are a chart-based visual aid, not a substitute for accurate position fixing.
Their usefulness depends on chart accuracy, leg length, and your ability to identify the airplane's actual position.
Compare the Three Methods
| Method | When to Use It | Main Action | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| Visual Alteration | A suitable, positively identified landmark is available | Navigate toward the chosen reference | Resume from a known position |
| Double Track Error | Sufficient distance remains, generally before halfway | Double the estimated error, intercept the original track, then reduce the correction | Regain the planned track |
| Opening and Closing Angles | Later in the leg, when continuing directly is preferable | Estimate opening and closing angles and correct toward the destination | Proceed toward the intended point without necessarily returning to the original track |
After Correcting the Track
Every significant track correction may change your expected flight time and fuel consumption. Update your navigation log after establishing the revised route.
Confirm Position
Verify the airplane's position using visual references or suitable navigation equipment.
Recalculate ETA
Estimate the remaining distance and groundspeed, then calculate a revised checkpoint or arrival time.
Check Fuel and Airspace
Ensure the revised route remains suitable for the available fuel, terrain, weather, and airspace.
When properly used, GPS or other available navigation equipment can help verify the airplane's position and actual ground track.
Maintain awareness of the terrain, airspace, and visual references. Do not allow calculations or chart work to distract from flying the airplane.
If you drift off your planned route, first establish your actual position. Then choose the most suitable correction technique.
Use visual alteration to navigate toward a known landmark, double track error to regain your route early in a leg, or opening and closing angles to proceed toward the destination when returning to the original track is unnecessary.
In the next section, we will examine diversions and lost procedures: what to do when continuing the original navigation plan is no longer appropriate.
Diversions and Lost Procedures
Even with careful flight planning, you may need to change your route or destination during a VFR flight. Deteriorating weather, unexpected fuel consumption, or aircraft problems can make continuing the original flight inappropriate.
You may also encounter a different problem: you can no longer identify your position with enough confidence to continue normal navigation.
Diversion: You know where you are, but decide to navigate to a different destination.
Lost procedure: You cannot determine your position reliably and must re-establish it or request assistance.
In both situations, maintaining aircraft control and a safe flight path comes first.
When Should You Divert?
A diversion is a planned change to your original route or destination. It should be considered before changing conditions become an emergency.
Deteriorating Weather
Lowering clouds, reduced visibility, thunderstorms, or conditions approaching VFR limits may require a new route or an earlier landing.
Fuel Concerns
Stronger headwinds, longer-than-expected flight times, or unexpectedly high consumption may make an intermediate fuel stop necessary.
Aircraft Problems
An abnormal indication or equipment problem may justify landing at a suitable nearby airport rather than continuing to the destination.
Do not continue into worsening weather or toward an uncertain fuel situation simply because the destination is already entered in your flight planner.
A precautionary diversion is often easier and safer than managing an emergency later.
1. Choose a Suitable Diversion Destination
Imagine you are flying the planned KMOD–KFAT route and decide that continuing to Fresno is no longer appropriate.
First, establish your present position. Then identify a suitable airport or landing option using current charts, available navigation equipment, and updated information.
Identify Your Position
Confirm where you are using recognizable charted features or suitable navigation equipment.
Choose an Airport
Consider airport distance, runway suitability, weather, terrain, airspace, and fuel remaining.
Check the Route
Verify that the new route avoids unsuitable weather, terrain, obstacles, and restricted airspace.
A nearby airport may have an unsuitable runway, poor weather, or challenging terrain.
Select the most appropriate reachable option for the situation, rather than relying on distance alone.
2. Estimate the New Track and Distance
Once you have selected the new destination, determine an approximate track and distance.
The original StudyFlight lesson suggests several useful chart-based techniques.
Draw the New Route
On the chart, mark your confirmed position and the new destination. Draw a straight line between them.
Estimate the Direction
Use a plotter, a nearby charted compass rose, or appropriate chart references to estimate the true course.
Identify a Midpoint
Mark a recognizable halfway reference or other useful checkpoint. It will help confirm your new track.
Measure Distance
Use the chart scale or a plotter to estimate the distance in nautical miles.
Check Wind
Correct the intended track for wind using your E6B or other suitable method, if time and workload permit.
Select a Safe Altitude
Consider terrain, obstacles, airspace, weather, and aircraft performance along the revised route.
3. Use Quick Distance and Time Estimates
During a diversion, you may not have time for an elaborate navigation calculation. Quick estimates help you decide whether the new destination is reachable.
| Quick Reference | Meaning | How to Use It |
|---|---|---|
| 1° Latitude | 60 NM | Use the latitude scale on the chart to estimate distance. |
| 1′ Latitude | 1 NM | One minute of latitude represents one nautical mile. |
| Chart Plotter | Distance scale | Measure the route directly using the correct chart scale. |
| Finger or Thumb | Personal chart reference | Calibrate your own finger width against the chart scale before relying on it. |
| Time Estimate | Distance ÷ GS | Use a reasonable expected groundspeed, allowing for wind. |
The original lesson suggests a rough thumb-width method for VNC and VTA charts. These charts use different scales.
Finger size varies between pilots, so measure your own thumb against a known chart distance. Do not assume another pilot's thumb-width estimate applies to you.
Suppose you identify a suitable alternate airport approximately 12 NM away.
For this illustration, assume an average groundspeed of 90 kt along the new route.
At 90 kt, the airplane travels 1.5 NM per minute. The original lesson provides a convenient shortcut:
Estimated diversion time: 8 minutes.
This shortcut is valid for an assumed groundspeed of 90 kt. A different groundspeed requires a different estimate.
4. Estimate Fuel Required for the Diversion
Once you have an estimated diversion time, compare the required fuel with the usable fuel actually remaining.
Continue with the hypothetical eight-minute diversion. Assume an appropriate fuel flow of 8.0 GPH.
The estimated enroute fuel for this diversion segment is approximately 1.1 gallons.
This does not include any additional maneuvering, climb, approach, holding, or other fuel needs.
Confirm that sufficient fuel remains for the revised flight, including applicable reserve requirements and a prudent margin.
If fuel becomes critically low, do not spend valuable time refining a perfect navigation log.
Prioritize a safe landing, promptly advise ATC of the situation, and declare an emergency when warranted.
5. Establish the Diversion Heading
With a new destination selected, establish an appropriate heading and begin navigating toward a positively identified checkpoint.
Confirm the New Course
Measure or estimate the intended route direction from your present position.
Apply Wind Correction
Use the available wind information to establish an appropriate heading. Cross-check the resulting ground track.
Record a New Time
Note the time you pass a known reference point and calculate the new ETA.
A major road, river, railway, or shoreline can be a useful navigation reference.
Verify it against the chart before using it, and ensure the revised route remains clear of unsuitable terrain and airspace.
6. Update ATC or Flight Service
Once you have a safe revised plan, advise the appropriate ATC facility of the new destination and your intentions when required or useful.
If you have an active VFR flight plan, contact Flight Service to amend the destination or other relevant details.
| Information | What to Report |
|---|---|
| Aircraft | Call sign and aircraft type |
| Position | Current or last confirmed position, altitude, and heading |
| New Destination | Airport or intended landing location |
| Reason | Weather, fuel, technical issue, or other relevant information |
| ETA | Revised estimated arrival time |
| Assistance | Any information or help required |
Advising ATC of a diversion does not automatically amend an active VFR flight plan filed with Flight Service.
Follow the applicable procedure for updating or closing the flight plan.
Lost Procedures — What If You Cannot Identify Your Position?
Being lost is different from choosing to divert. You cannot safely plan a new route until you have a sufficiently reliable position reference.
The original StudyFlight lesson emphasizes maintaining control, marking the last known position, searching for landmarks, using navigation equipment, and asking for help.
If you are unsure of your position, avoid repeatedly changing heading to chase unfamiliar landmarks. This can make the situation worse and complicate position recovery.
Maintain a safe altitude, monitor fuel, and request assistance early.
7. Follow a Systematic Lost Procedure
Aviate
Maintain control of the airplane. Use a safe speed and altitude, appropriate to conditions and aircraft performance.
Mark Last Known Position
Circle the last positively identified position on the chart. Record the time, heading, and estimated distance traveled since.
Establish an Uncertainty Area
Estimate how far you could have traveled since the last known point. Mark a reasonable search area on the chart.
Look for Known Landmarks
Compare the terrain with the chart. Look for distinctive towns, lakes, roads, airports, or other reliable features.
Use Navigation Equipment
Check suitable GPS, VOR, or other available navigation systems. Cross-check position information when possible.
Ask for Assistance
Contact ATC or Flight Service. State your situation and provide your last known position, heading, altitude, and fuel remaining.
A higher altitude may improve visibility, radio reception, or radar coverage.
However, do not climb into cloud, icing, unsafe terrain clearance, or airspace where a climb is not permitted.
If an emergency develops, request assistance and use the appropriate emergency procedures.
8. Estimate Your Area of Uncertainty
If you know where you were 15 minutes ago, you can estimate the distance traveled since that position.
You last positively identified a checkpoint at 10:15. It is now 10:30.
You estimate your groundspeed has been around 90 kt.
Your estimated position is about 22.5 NM from the last known checkpoint along the assumed track.
Because your heading, wind, and groundspeed may be uncertain, treat this as an estimate, not an exact position.
Expand your search area to account for uncertainty, and use charted landmarks or navigation equipment to establish your position.
9. Communicate When You Need Help
If you cannot confidently determine your position, contact ATC or Flight Service. You do not need to wait until the situation becomes an emergency to ask for help.
Explain the difficulty and provide as much relevant information as you can.
If you cannot reach the appropriate facility on a normal frequency, the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz may be used to request assistance when appropriate.
Used for an urgency condition concerning the safety of an aircraft or persons, when immediate assistance may be needed but the situation does not yet involve grave and imminent danger.
Used for a distress condition involving grave and imminent danger requiring immediate assistance.
Becoming lost can develop into a serious emergency, particularly with low fuel, worsening weather, terrain concerns, or uncertainty about remaining VFR conditions.
If in distress, declare MAYDAY. If experiencing an urgency that warrants priority assistance, use PAN-PAN. Follow ATC guidance.
If unable to establish radio contact during an emergency, use transponder code 7700 as appropriate. When already communicating with ATC, normally retain the assigned code unless instructed otherwise.
10. Decide Whether to Divert or Land
Once your position has been established, decide whether you can safely continue, divert to a suitable airport, or need another landing option.
| Situation | Appropriate Priority |
|---|---|
| Position Recovered | Reassess the route, weather, fuel, and available landing options before continuing. |
| Weather Deteriorating | Avoid entering unsafe conditions. Divert or land while suitable VFR conditions remain, when possible. |
| Fuel Concern | Prioritize reaching a suitable landing site, advise ATC, and declare an emergency when warranted. |
| Uncertain Position Persists | Request assistance, maintain safe flight, and avoid unsupported navigation guesses. |
| Emergency Landing Required | Follow aircraft emergency procedures and prioritize a safe landing. |
If continuing flight is unsafe, a precautionary landing may be appropriate while the aircraft remains controllable.
An engine failure or another situation requiring an immediate landing demands the relevant emergency aircraft procedures.
These situations are covered in the separate StudyFlight Pre-Flight Lessons on precautionary and forced landings.
Quick Comparison — Diversion vs. Lost Procedure
| Step | Diversion | Lost Procedure |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Aircraft Control | Maintain safe flight. | Maintain safe flight. |
| 2. Position | Confirm current position. | Mark last known position and establish uncertainty area. |
| 3. Navigation | Select new destination and estimate track. | Use landmarks, navigation equipment, and available assistance. |
| 4. Time and Fuel | Calculate new ETA and fuel requirements. | Monitor fuel and remaining safe flying time. |
| 5. Communication | Advise ATC or Flight Service as appropriate. | Request position assistance promptly and declare urgency or distress when appropriate. |
| 6. Next Action | Navigate toward the revised destination. | After recovering position, continue safely, divert, or land as needed. |
The FAA Aeronautical Information Manual, Chapter 6, Section 3 explains distress and urgency communications, emergency assistance, and related procedures.
A diversion begins with a confirmed position. Select a suitable destination, estimate the new track, distance, time, and fuel, then update the navigation plan.
If you are lost, maintain aircraft control, mark the last known position, use landmarks and navigation equipment to recover your position, and ask for help early.
A safe landing takes priority over completing navigation calculations. Never allow an uncertain position, worsening weather, or fuel concern to develop into an avoidable emergency.
VFR Navigation: Step-by-Step Flight Planning Checklist
A successful cross-country flight follows a logical sequence. Prepare the flight on the ground, use your navigation plan in the air, and continuously reassess the conditions as the flight progresses.
The following chronological checklist summarizes the complete navigation process, from your initial preflight preparation to closing your VFR flight plan after landing.
Phase 1 — Preflight Planning
Complete these steps before departure.| Step | Action | What to Do | What You Should Have Ready |
|---|---|---|---|
| 01 | Gather Charts and Documents | Obtain current sectional charts, airport information, aircraft documents, and relevant navigation materials. | Current charts, POH/AFM, airport references |
| 02 | Review Weather and NOTAMs | Review METARs, TAFs, winds aloft, NOTAMs, airspace limitations, and weather along the route. Make an initial GO/NO-GO assessment. | Weather briefing, forecast winds, operational restrictions |
| 03 | Calculate Weight and Balance | Calculate the expected takeoff weight and center of gravity. Confirm compliance with the aircraft's loading limitations. | Approved weight and CG |
| 04 | Select the Route | Choose departure and destination airports, plan the route, identify the set heading point and visual checkpoints, and consider terrain, airspace, and alternate airports. | Planned route and checkpoints |
| 05 | Mark the Chart | Draw each navigation leg. Mark distances, midpoints, 10 NM intervals where useful, and 10° drift reference lines. Measure true courses. | Charted courses, distances, drift references |
| 06 | Calculate Aircraft Performance | Determine takeoff distance, climb time/fuel/distance, cruise TAS and fuel flow, planned descent, and landing distance. | Aircraft performance figures |
| 07 | Calculate Headings with the E6B | For each leg, use true course, TAS, and forecast wind to obtain wind correction angle and groundspeed. Apply variation and deviation to determine the appropriate heading. | WCA, GS, TH, MH, and CH where needed |
| 08 | Calculate Flight Times and Fuel | Calculate leg ETEs, estimated total flight time, fuel for each flight phase, legal reserves, and appropriate additional margins. | Leg times, ETA, total fuel requirement |
| 09 | Complete the VFR Flight Planner | Enter route legs, checkpoints, headings, groundspeeds, times, fuel, airport frequencies, and alternate options. | Completed navigation log |
| 10 | Final GO/NO-GO and Flight Plan | Reassess current weather, aircraft condition, fuel, runway suitability, and route. File a VFR flight plan as appropriate, and complete the departure briefing. | Final departure decision and flight plan status |
Phase 2 — Departure and Enroute Navigation
Use and update the plan during flight.| Step | Action | What to Do | What You Should Have Ready |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11 | Depart Safely | Follow aircraft procedures, ATC instructions, and the appropriate departure method. Activate the VFR flight plan when applicable. | Safe departure and climb |
| 12 | Establish at the SHP | Positively identify the set heading point, establish the planned heading, record the time, and start the navigation leg. | SHP time and initial leg ETA |
| 13 | Navigate Between Checkpoints | Maintain the planned heading, compare ground features with the chart, and verify actual position and track. | Confirmed position and track |
| 14 | Update Times and Fuel | Record actual checkpoint times, compare planned and actual GS, update ETA, and monitor fuel remaining. | Updated navigation log |
| 15 | Correct Track Errors | If off track, confirm your position. Use visual alteration, double track error, or opening and closing angles when appropriate. | Revised heading and route |
| 16 | Divert if Necessary | Reassess the flight when weather, fuel, aircraft condition, or other factors change. Select a suitable destination, estimate heading, time, and fuel, and advise ATC as appropriate. | Safe revised navigation plan |
| 17 | Recover Position if Lost | Maintain control, mark the last known position, identify landmarks, use available navigation equipment, and request assistance early. | Reliable position or assistance toward a safe landing |
Track corrections, diversions, and lost procedures are not routine stages that every flight must include. They are actions to take if the circumstances require them.
Continue monitoring terrain, airspace, weather, aircraft systems, and fuel throughout the flight.
Phase 3 — Arrival and Postflight
Complete the flight safely.| Step | Action | What to Do | What You Should Have Ready |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | Prepare for Arrival | Review destination weather, airport information, arrival procedures, expected runway, and descent planning. | Arrival briefing and descent plan |
| 19 | Descend and Land | Follow safe descent procedures, aircraft checklists, and applicable ATC instructions. Complete the landing. | Safe arrival at destination |
| 20 | Close the Flight Plan | After landing, ensure any active VFR flight plan is properly closed through the appropriate service. | Confirmed flight plan closure |
Review charts and weather → Calculate weight and balance → Select and mark the route → Check aircraft performance → Calculate headings and times → Complete the navigation log → Depart and establish the track → Verify checkpoints and update ETA → Correct or divert when necessary → Prepare the arrival → Land and close the VFR flight plan.
Pilot Navigation Review Questions
Test your understanding of VFR navigation, including chart preparation, true and magnetic directions, aircraft speeds, E6B calculations, fuel planning, departure methods, enroute navigation, track corrections, diversions, and lost procedures.
Answer each question before opening the explanation. Try to explain the procedure in your own words and understand why each step matters.
Part 1 — Navigation Preparation and Terminology
Review the essential navigation concepts before working with headings and flight times.
What is the difference between true course, true track, and true heading?
True course is the direction of the intended path over the ground, measured from true north.
True track describes the direction the aircraft actually travels over the ground, also measured from true north.
True heading is the direction the airplane's nose points relative to true north.
With a crosswind, heading and ground track may differ because the pilot must point the nose into the wind to remain on course.
What are magnetic variation and compass deviation, and how do they affect navigation?
Magnetic variation is the angular difference between true north and magnetic north. It is used to convert true directions into magnetic directions.
Compass deviation is an error caused by magnetic influences within the airplane. It is corrected using the aircraft's compass correction card.
When converting true heading to magnetic heading, subtract east variation and add west variation.
What is the difference between IAS, CAS, TAS, and groundspeed?
IAS: The speed displayed on the airspeed indicator.
CAS: IAS corrected for instrument and position errors.
TAS: The airplane's speed relative to the surrounding air mass.
Groundspeed: The airplane's speed relative to the ground.
For navigation planning, use TAS with forecast wind to calculate groundspeed. Groundspeed is then used to estimate flight time.
What information should be prepared before completing a VFR navigation log?
Prepare current charts and airport information, weather and NOTAMs, the intended route and checkpoints, and an appropriate cruising altitude.
Check aircraft weight and balance, takeoff and landing performance, climb requirements, cruise TAS, and fuel flow.
Measure the distance and true course of each navigation leg. These values form the basis for heading, time, and fuel calculations.
Part 2 — E6B Calculations and Flight Planning
Apply the navigation calculations used to prepare headings, groundspeeds, flight times, and fuel requirements.
How do you use the wind side of a mechanical E6B to determine wind correction angle and groundspeed?
Place the wind direction under the TRUE INDEX. Mark the wind speed above the center grommet using the E6B speed scale.
Rotate the compass rose to the planned true course, then move the grid until the wind dot lies on the true airspeed arc.
Read the wind correction angle at the wind dot and the groundspeed beneath the grommet.
Your true course is 150° and the E6B gives a wind correction of 10° right. What is your true heading?
The wind correction is to the right, so add it to the true course.
The airplane must point approximately 10° right of the planned course to compensate for the crosswind.
A navigation leg is 36 NM long and your groundspeed is 108 kt. What is your estimated time enroute?
Divide the distance by groundspeed and convert hours to minutes.
At the planned groundspeed, the leg should take approximately 20 minutes.
What are the minimum fuel reserve requirements for a VFR flight during the day and at night under FAA regulations?
Under FAA regulations (14 CFR 91.151), an airplane operating under VFR must carry enough fuel to reach the first point of intended landing and then continue flying at normal cruising speed for at least:
Day VFR: 30 minutes of additional flight.
Night VFR: 45 minutes of additional flight.
These are legal minimums, not recommended planning targets. Consider carrying additional fuel for unexpected winds, delays, diversions, and other uncertainties.
Part 3 — Departure and Enroute Navigation
Review how to begin a navigation leg and maintain an accurate position during a VFR flight.
What are the three departure methods discussed in this lesson, and what is the purpose of a Set Heading Point?
The three methods are: overhead departure, enroute climb, and departure via a Set Heading Point (SHP).
An SHP is a positively identified reference point from which the pilot can begin a planned navigation leg.
At the SHP, confirm the position, establish the appropriate heading, record the time, and begin monitoring progress toward the next checkpoint.
The selected departure method must be compatible with terrain, airspace, aircraft performance, and ATC instructions.
How do you determine whether your airplane is following the planned ground track?
Compare positively identified ground features with the route on your chart.
Use elapsed time, expected groundspeed, and recognizable checkpoints to estimate your position by dead reckoning.
Cross-check with available navigation equipment when appropriate. If the actual track differs from the planned course, identify the error before making a correction.
What is the double track error method, and when is it most useful?
The double track error method is a simplified way to regain the original planned route during the early part of a navigation leg.
For example, if you estimate a 5° track error to the left, make an approximately 10° heading change to the right to intercept the route.
After regaining the route, reduce the correction to the amount needed to compensate for the drift.
This is an approximation. Confirm your position and track interception using visual references or suitable navigation equipment.
Part 4 — Diversions and Lost Procedures
Apply sound judgment when the original navigation plan can no longer be followed safely.
When should a pilot consider a diversion, and what must be checked before selecting a new destination?
Consider a diversion when deteriorating weather, unexpected fuel consumption, aircraft problems, or other conditions make continuing the planned flight unsuitable.
Confirm your position and select an appropriate airport. Check weather, runway suitability, terrain, airspace, distance, and fuel remaining.
Estimate the new heading, groundspeed, flight time, and fuel requirement. Advise ATC or Flight Service as appropriate.
What should you do if you become lost during a VFR cross-country flight?
Maintain aircraft control first. Avoid making repeated unsupported heading changes.
Mark your last positively identified position and time, estimate the possible area in which you may be located, and compare charted landmarks with the terrain.
Use available GPS, VOR, or other suitable navigation equipment to help establish your position.
Request assistance from ATC or Flight Service early. If the situation becomes urgent or involves distress, use the appropriate emergency communication procedures.
Aviate, Navigate, Communicate. Maintaining safe flight takes priority over completing navigation calculations.
Effective VFR navigation begins with accurate preflight preparation and continues throughout the flight. A pilot must understand the difference between course, track, and heading; calculate the effect of wind; maintain situational awareness; and regularly verify actual progress against the navigation plan.
When conditions change, reassess the route, fuel, weather, and available landing options. A safe decision is always more important than reaching the originally planned destination.
