The objective of this practical pre-flight lesson is to prepare you to establish and maintain an aircraft climb under the supervision of your flight instructor. You will learn how pitch, angle of attack, power, airspeed, coordination and trim work together, how to perform a normal climb, and later how normal climb, Vx, Vy and en route climb differ.
A climb is a flight condition in which the airplane gains altitude. To establish a stable climb, the pilot combines an appropriate pitch attitude and power setting, allows the airspeed to stabilize and keeps the airplane coordinated.
Elevator pressure changes the airplane's pitch attitude and helps establish the outside sight picture required for the climb.
Additional power provides the energy needed to gain altitude while maintaining a useful climb airspeed.
Once climb power is established, pitch is adjusted as required to maintain the airspeed appropriate for the airplane and the type of climb.
Before learning the control procedure, it is important to understand what changes as the airplane transitions from straight-and-level flight to an upward flight path.
Lift, weight, thrust and drag continue to act on the airplane during a climb. The airplane does not simply climb because lift remains greater than weight.
During the transition into the climb, the pilot changes pitch and increases power. Once a steady climb is established, the airplane follows a stable upward flight path and sufficient thrust is required to overcome the increased drag associated with climbing.
Angle of attack (AOA) is the angle between the wing's chord line and the relative wind.
The chord line is an imaginary straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. Relative wind flows opposite the airplane's flight path through the air.
Angle of attack therefore does not simply mean how high the nose appears above the horizon.
Pitch attitude describes the airplane's orientation relative to the horizon. Angle of attack describes the angle between the wing chord line and the relative wind.
Because the relative wind follows the airplane's flight path, a nose-up pitch attitude does not tell you the exact angle of attack. Pitch attitude and angle of attack are related, but they are not interchangeable.
As you apply back pressure to transition from level flight, the pitch attitude increases. During this transition, the wing's angle of attack increases and lift increases temporarily, causing the flight path to curve upward.
As the airplane becomes established on the new upward flight path, the relative wind changes with that flight path. The relationship between pitch attitude and angle of attack therefore changes again.
If you simply raise the nose without adding sufficient power, the airplane trades airspeed for altitude and the airspeed decreases. A sustainable powered climb therefore requires an appropriate combination of pitch and power.
Previous lesson: This maneuver builds directly on Straight-and-Level Flight . You will begin from a stable flight condition before transitioning to the climb.
A normal climb is the routine climb technique recommended for the airplane you are flying. The exact airspeed, pitch attitude and power setting are aircraft-specific, but the control sequence follows the same basic logic.
Begin from stabilized straight-and-level flight unless your instructor specifies another entry. Keep your attention outside while using brief instrument cross-checks to confirm the result.
Check the airspace ahead and around the airplane before changing pitch. Confirm the area is clear and maintain awareness throughout the climb.
Smoothly apply back pressure to establish the climb attitude while increasing power to the recommended climb setting. Use the nose-to-horizon relationship as your primary visual reference.
As power increases and airspeed decreases, anticipate stronger left-turning tendencies in a typical single-engine propeller airplane. Apply right rudder and aileron pressure as required to keep the airplane coordinated and the wings level.
Allow the airplane to transition onto the upward flight path. Use small elevator adjustments to establish and maintain the target climb airspeed specified for the airplane and the type of climb being performed.
Hold a consistent nose-to-horizon relationship, keep the wings level and maintain the selected heading. Avoid chasing the airspeed indicator with repeated pitch changes.
Briefly confirm climb airspeed, heading, rate of climb, coordination and engine indications. Then return your attention outside.
Once the climb attitude, airspeed and power are stable, trim to relieve steady elevator pressure. Continue flying the airplane with the primary controls.
During the transition into a climb, raising the pitch attitude changes the wing's angle of attack and redirects the airplane onto an upward flight path. Without an appropriate increase in power, airspeed decreases.
Once climb power is established, elevator pressure is used to fine-tune the climb attitude and airspeed. In a typical single-engine propeller airplane, high power combined with lower airspeed also strengthens left-turning tendencies, which is why additional right rudder is commonly required.
There is no universal normal-climb airspeed, pitch attitude or power setting. Use the procedures and values specified for the airplane you are flying. Later in this lesson, we will compare normal climb speed with Vx, Vy and en route climb speeds.
There is no single climb speed for every situation. The airspeed you use depends on what you are trying to achieve: routine climbing, maximum altitude gain in the least time, maximum altitude gain over the shortest horizontal distance, or a practical en route climb.
A normal climb is performed at the airspeed recommended by the aircraft manufacturer for routine climbing. It is generally faster than Vy and provides a less nose-high attitude than a maximum-performance climb.
When maximum climb performance is not required, this additional airspeed provides several practical advantages.
Vy is the airspeed that provides the greatest gain in altitude in a given amount of time.
Vx is the airspeed that provides the greatest gain in altitude over a given horizontal distance.
Do not memorize a Vx or Vy value from another airplane. Use the speeds published in the AFM/POH for the aircraft you are flying. The correct values can vary with aircraft model, configuration and operating conditions.
There is no single climb speed that applies to every Cessna 172 model and every climb condition. Normal climb, Vy and Vx use different target speeds, and published values can differ between 172 variants and operating conditions. Use the POH for the specific airplane you are flying rather than relying on one generic Cessna 172 number.
An en route climb may be flown at an airspeed selected for a useful balance of climb performance, visibility, cooling, comfort and progress toward the destination.
Unlike Vx or Vy, the objective is not necessarily to maximize altitude gain over distance or time. Follow the aircraft manufacturer's recommended procedures and the climb technique demonstrated by your instructor.
| Climb | Main Goal | Practical Idea |
|---|---|---|
| Normal Climb | Routine climb | Balance performance with visibility, cooling and control. |
| Vy | Maximum altitude gain per unit of time | Think time. |
| Vx | Maximum altitude gain per horizontal distance | Think distance / obstacle clearance. |
| En Route Climb | Practical climb during the en route phase | Balance climb performance with other operational considerations. |
Establish and maintain the climb primarily with outside visual references. Then make brief instrument checks to confirm that the airplane is maintaining the intended airspeed, attitude, direction and climb performance.
The nose-to-horizon relationship gives you the primary visual indication of the climb attitude. The flight instruments then confirm whether the airplane is actually climbing at the desired airspeed and remaining on the intended heading.
Do not fix your attention on one instrument. A climb is a complete flight condition, so the cross-check should move briefly between the important indications before your attention returns outside.
Use short glances inside the cockpit to confirm the flight condition, then return your attention outside.
If the airspeed is wrong, make a small pitch correction using the outside sight picture, then cross-check the result.
The attitude indicator helps confirm pitch and bank, but the natural horizon remains the primary visual reference in VFR flight.
Monitor the altimeter so you know your progress and can begin the level-off before reaching the selected altitude.
Use the vertical speed indication as a performance cross-check rather than as the primary means of controlling pitch.
Confirm that no unintended turn is developing while you maintain the outside reference ahead.
Check coordination briefly and adjust rudder pressure as required while keeping the wings and heading under control.
Establish and maintain the climb attitude primarily by looking outside at the relationship between the nose and horizon.
Use brief instrument checks to verify airspeed, heading, altitude change, attitude and climb performance.
Make small control corrections using outside references, allow the airplane to respond, then cross-check again.
Establish the climb outside, glance inside to confirm airspeed, altitude, heading, coordination and performance, then return your attention outside. Do not try to maintain the entire climb by staring at the instrument panel.
Once the airplane is established with the appropriate climb power, your job is to maintain the target climb airspeed, heading and coordination. In an established climb, small changes in pitch are used to correct airspeed while the power remains at the selected climb setting.
Use the natural horizon to make a small pitch correction, hold the new attitude briefly and then cross-check the airspeed. Airspeed does not change instantly when you move the elevator, so avoid making another correction before the airplane has had time to respond.
If the airplane is climbing slower than the target airspeed, the pitch attitude is generally too high for the established power setting.
Recognize that the nose-to-horizon picture is higher than needed for the desired climb.
Apply a small amount of forward elevator pressure and establish a slightly lower nose attitude.
Maintain the new sight picture and allow the airspeed to begin increasing.
As the target airspeed returns, establish the pitch attitude that maintains it and re-trim if a steady pressure remains.
If the airplane is climbing faster than the target airspeed, the pitch attitude is generally too low for the established power setting.
Compare the nose position with the climb sight picture demonstrated by your instructor.
Apply a small amount of back elevator pressure and establish a slightly higher nose attitude.
Maintain the new attitude and allow the airplane time to decelerate toward the desired climb airspeed.
When the target airspeed is reached, hold the corresponding climb attitude and trim only after the condition is stable.
Make one small pitch correction, hold the new attitude and give the airplane time to accelerate or decelerate. Repeated rapid pitch corrections usually create larger airspeed and altitude variations instead of fixing the original deviation.
In a typical single-engine propeller trainer, the combination of high power, a nose-up attitude and lower airspeed increases the airplane's left-turning tendencies. Without correction, the nose may yaw left and the airplane may also tend to roll left.
Your outside reference no longer remains directly ahead even though you intended to climb straight.
Increase right rudder pressure only enough to maintain coordinated flight and the selected direction.
Keep the wings level with aileron as required and use the coordination indication as a cross-check.
Do not memorize a fixed amount of right rudder. The required pressure changes with power, airspeed, pitch, configuration and aircraft type. Apply the pressure needed to keep the airplane coordinated rather than simply pushing the pedal to a predetermined position.
Do not wait until the airplane reaches the selected altitude before lowering the nose. Begin the level-off slightly before the target altitude so that the airplane reaches it as the level-flight attitude is established.
A useful starting point is to begin the level-off at an altitude approximately equal to 10 percent of the current rate of climb below the selected altitude. The exact point may vary with the airplane, climb rate and how smoothly the maneuver is performed.
Begin the maneuver before reaching the selected altitude, establish the level-flight attitude smoothly and allow the airplane to accelerate before setting cruise power.
As the selected altitude approaches, use the current rate of climb to determine when to begin the level-off. Do not wait until the altimeter already indicates the target altitude.
Apply forward elevator pressure and transition from the climb sight picture toward the normal straight-and-level attitude. Make the change smoothly rather than abruptly.
Establish the level-flight pitch attitude as the airplane reaches the selected altitude. Use small elevator corrections to prevent continuing the climb or descending below the target altitude.
Do not immediately reduce the throttle. Maintain the climb power setting while the airplane accelerates toward the desired cruise airspeed.
As the nose lowers and airspeed increases, adjust rudder pressure as required to keep the airplane coordinated and maintain the selected heading.
As the airplane approaches the desired cruise airspeed, reduce power smoothly to the cruise setting specified for the airplane.
Re-establish the straight-and-level sight picture, confirm altitude, heading and airspeed, then trim to relieve any remaining steady elevator pressure.
During the climb, the airplane is flying slower than its normal cruise speed. When you lower the nose to the level-flight attitude, retaining climb power temporarily helps the airplane accelerate toward cruise airspeed.
If you reduce power immediately at the beginning of the level-off, the airplane accelerates more slowly. Establish the level attitude first, allow the airspeed to build, then set cruise power and trim.
A climb in a typical single-engine propeller airplane often requires noticeable right rudder. As the pitch attitude lowers, airspeed increases and power is eventually reduced, the left-turning tendencies change. Gradually adjust rudder pressure as required rather than continuing to hold the same amount used in the climb.
If you begin the maneuver only after reaching the selected altitude, the airplane will usually continue climbing through it.
Use a smooth pitch change. An abrupt transition makes altitude and airspeed control more difficult.
Establish level flight and allow the airplane to accelerate before reducing to the desired cruise power setting.
The airplane will not climb at the same rate under every condition. Temperature, altitude, weight, aircraft configuration and available engine power can all change the amount of climb performance available.
Density altitude describes how the airplane “feels” the surrounding air from a performance standpoint. When density altitude is high, the air is less dense and the airplane generally accelerates and climbs less effectively.
A heavier airplane requires more aerodynamic force and more power to achieve the same climb performance. As weight increases, the available climb performance generally decreases.
Extended flaps increase lift but also increase drag. Depending on the airplane and flap setting, that extra drag can reduce climb performance. Use the configuration specified in the POH for the climb being performed.
On a retractable-gear airplane, extended landing gear creates additional drag and can substantially reduce climb performance. Follow the aircraft-specific gear retraction procedure.
Anything that reduces available engine power can reduce climb performance. Mixture, carburetor heat and other engine controls should therefore be set according to the aircraft manufacturer's procedures and the current operating conditions.
On a hot day, at a high-elevation airport or with a heavily loaded airplane, the aircraft may climb much more slowly than it did during a previous flight. Do not expect one familiar sight picture or one familiar rate of climb to produce the same performance under every set of conditions.
Use the AFM/POH performance data for the specific airplane to determine expected climb performance for the actual weight, pressure altitude, temperature and configuration. Published charts are more useful than relying on a rule of thumb or what the airplane achieved on a previous flight.
A nose-up attitude reduces your view of the airspace directly ahead. During a climb, continue an active traffic scan and monitor the engine regularly while maintaining the flight path already established.
The higher nose position can obscure traffic directly ahead. Clear the surrounding airspace before entering the climb and continue looking for traffic throughout the maneuver.
Check ahead, to both sides and around the airplane before raising the nose and beginning the climb.
Continue searching the surrounding airspace for traffic instead of allowing your attention to remain inside the cockpit.
Be especially aware of the airspace hidden by the nose-up attitude and use the lookout technique demonstrated by your instructor.
During a prolonged climb, your instructor may demonstrate an appropriate technique for improving the view ahead, such as a brief change in pitch or heading when conditions permit. Any such maneuver should be performed smoothly while maintaining control, situational awareness and the required flight path.
A climb places the engine at a relatively high power setting for an extended period. Include the appropriate engine indications in your regular scan and confirm that the airplane continues to operate normally.
Verify that the engine is producing the power expected for the climb and that the selected setting remains appropriate for the airplane.
Monitor the engine indications applicable to your airplane and verify that they remain within the normal operating range.
Pay attention to unexpected changes in engine sound, power, temperature, pressure or other indications relevant to the aircraft you are flying.
Mixture, carburetor heat, cowl flaps and other engine controls are not handled identically in every airplane or at every altitude. Use the AFM/POH checklist and the procedures taught by your instructor rather than applying one universal climb configuration.
A good climb should be stable, coordinated and predictable. Most problems begin when the pilot makes corrections too aggressively, focuses too much on the instruments or forgets that pitch, power, airspeed and coordination all work together.
Repeated pitch changes do not give the airplane enough time to respond. Make a small correction, hold the new attitude and then cross-check the result.
An excessively high pitch attitude causes the airspeed to decrease. Use the outside sight picture and the target climb airspeed to establish the correct attitude.
High power and lower airspeed can increase left-turning tendencies in a typical single-engine propeller airplane. Apply rudder as required to remain coordinated.
Establish the desired attitude, power and airspeed first. Use trim only after the climb is stable to relieve steady control pressure.
The nose-up attitude already reduces forward visibility. Keep the outside scan as your priority and use only brief instrument checks.
If you wait until the target altitude is already reached, the airplane will usually continue climbing above it. Begin the level-off slightly before the selected altitude.
You should be able to mentally rehearse the complete maneuver before performing it with your instructor.
Look outside and confirm the airspace is clear.
Raise the nose smoothly and set the required climb power.
Use rudder and aileron as required to keep the airplane straight and coordinated.
Once climb power is established, use small pitch changes to maintain the desired climb airspeed.
Confirm airspeed, heading, coordination, climb performance and engine indications.
Relieve steady elevator pressure only after the climb condition is established.
Start slightly before the selected altitude, level smoothly, accelerate, set cruise power and re-trim.
Maintain an active traffic scan throughout the maneuver.
Once the correct pitch, power and airspeed are established, the airplane should require only small corrections. Build a stable outside sight picture, confirm it with brief instrument checks and avoid continually changing the controls.
Continue reviewing private pilot airplane maneuvers with this additional training lesson from Pilot Institute.
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Before practicing climbs in the airplane, make sure you can explain the difference between pitch attitude and angle of attack, the purpose of each climb speed, the basic control sequence, how to correct airspeed and coordination, and how to transition back to straight-and-level flight.
Pitch attitude describes the airplane's orientation relative to the horizon. Angle of attack is the angle between the wing's chord line and the relative wind. A nose-up pitch attitude therefore does not, by itself, tell you the airplane's exact angle of attack.
Vy is the best rate of climb speed: it provides the greatest altitude gain in a given amount of time. Vx is the best angle of climb speed: it provides the greatest altitude gain over a given horizontal distance.
When maximum climb performance is not required, a normal climb can provide better forward visibility, improved engine cooling and more comfortable aircraft handling. Use the climb speed recommended for the specific airplane.
Lower the nose slightly, establish the new outside sight picture and give the airplane time to respond. As the target airspeed returns, stabilize the appropriate climb attitude and re-trim if necessary.
Raise the nose slightly with a small elevator input, hold the new attitude and allow the airplane to decelerate toward the target climb airspeed. Avoid repeatedly chasing the airspeed indicator.
High power, lower airspeed and a nose-up attitude can strengthen the airplane's left-turning tendencies. Right rudder is therefore commonly required to maintain coordinated flight and the selected direction. The amount required depends on the airplane and conditions.
Begin slightly before reaching the selected altitude. A useful starting point is approximately 10% of the current rate of climb below the target altitude. For example, at 500 fpm, begin the level-off approximately 50 feet early.
After establishing the level-flight attitude, retaining climb power temporarily allows the airplane to accelerate toward the desired cruise airspeed. Cruise power is then set and the airplane is re-trimmed.
High density altitude, greater aircraft weight, additional drag from configuration and reduced available engine power can all decrease climb performance. Use the AFM/POH performance data for the airplane and current operating conditions.
Before getting into the airplane, you should be able to explain the difference between pitch attitude and angle of attack, establish a normal climb, maintain the target airspeed and coordination, distinguish normal climb from Vx and Vy, monitor climb performance and traffic, and level off smoothly at the selected altitude.
Review pitch, heading, airspeed control and trim in stable level flight.
Learn how to establish and maintain a controlled descent using pitch, power, airspeed and trim.
