In this lesson, you will learn how to plan and perform a normal takeoff from a firm runway under typical operating conditions. You will study the factors that affect takeoff performance, the three phases of the takeoff, takeoff distance and ground roll, aircraft-specific takeoff speeds, and the correct step-by-step sequence from the takeoff roll through rotation, lift-off and initial climb.
You will also learn how to recognize common takeoff errors and hazards. Exact aircraft configuration, speeds and limitations must always come from the approved AFM/POH. This lesson builds on the directional-control and coordination skills developed in the Turn Pre-Flight Lesson .
A successful takeoff begins before the airplane starts moving. The pilot must know that the available runway, aircraft performance and operating conditions are suitable, then maintain directional control, accelerate normally, rotate at the appropriate speed and establish a stable initial climb.
Understand how weight, density altitude, wind, runway condition and aircraft configuration affect takeoff distance and climb performance.
Follow the progression from takeoff roll to lift-off and then to the initial climb.
Know when to rotate and which climb speed is appropriate for the situation, using the values specified in the aircraft AFM/POH.
Maintain directional control during acceleration, establish the correct takeoff attitude smoothly, and transition into a stable climb after lift-off.
What Is a Normal Takeoff?
A normal takeoff is the standard procedure used to transition an airplane from a firm runway into a controlled initial climb when no special short-field, soft-field or significant crosswind technique is required.
From runway acceleration to a stable climb
During a normal takeoff, the airplane accelerates along the runway until sufficient airspeed and control effectiveness are available for lift-off. The pilot then establishes the appropriate takeoff attitude and transitions smoothly into the initial climb at the airspeed specified for the airplane.
A headwind reduces the groundspeed required to reach flying airspeed and normally shortens the ground roll. Any approved tailwind operation must be evaluated using the aircraft AFM/POH performance data.
A normal takeoff assumes a suitable runway that allows the airplane to accelerate normally to lift-off speed without requiring a specialized short-field or soft-field technique.
Directional control, rotation and lift-off should form one continuous sequence that ends with the airplane established in a stable climb at the appropriate aircraft-specific airspeed.
Factors That Affect Takeoff Performance
Takeoff performance is not fixed. The same airplane may need more or less runway depending on its weight, air density, wind, runway conditions and configuration. These factors must be checked before every takeoff.
Use the aircraft performance data
Use the approved AFM/POH for the airplane and the actual conditions of the takeoff. Do not assume that the airplane will perform today exactly as it did on a previous flight.
A heavier airplane usually accelerates more slowly, needs a longer takeoff distance and climbs less well after lift-off.
High elevation, high temperature and low pressure can create high density altitude. In less dense air, the airplane needs more runway and climbs less well.
A headwind reduces the groundspeed needed for lift-off and usually shortens the takeoff roll. A tailwind increases the groundspeed and the distance required.
Grass, soft ground, standing water, snow or slush can increase rolling resistance and make the takeoff roll longer.
An uphill runway reduces acceleration and usually increases takeoff distance. A downhill runway may improve acceleration, but wind and other conditions must also be considered.
Flap setting and aircraft configuration affect lift and drag. Use the takeoff configuration given in the AFM/POH.
Headwind vs tailwind
A headwind helps takeoff performance. The airplane needs less groundspeed to reach the airspeed needed for lift-off.
A tailwind has the opposite effect. The airplane must travel faster over the ground before lift-off, so more runway is needed.
- Lower groundspeed
- Shorter takeoff distance
- Better obstacle clearance
- Higher groundspeed
- Longer takeoff distance
- Less performance margin
Why density altitude matters
Pressure altitude is altitude based on standard atmospheric pressure. It can be found by setting the altimeter to 29.92 inHg.
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature. High density altitude means that the air is less dense.
Less dense air reduces aircraft performance. The airplane usually needs a longer takeoff roll and its climb performance is reduced.
Use the performance charts, corrections and limits in the aircraft AFM/POH. Do not replace them with estimates or rules of thumb.
The Three Stages of a Normal Takeoff
Although a normal takeoff is one continuous maneuver, it is easier to understand and practice when divided into three connected stages: takeoff roll, lift-off and initial climb. Each stage leads directly into the next.
From brake release until the airplane leaves the runway, the aircraft accelerates while the pilot maintains directional control, monitors engine performance and keeps the airplane aligned with the runway.
At the appropriate aircraft-specific speed, the pilot establishes the takeoff attitude smoothly. As sufficient lift develops, the airplane leaves the runway and begins accelerating toward the desired climb speed.
After lift-off, the pilot establishes the appropriate pitch attitude and climb airspeed while maintaining directional control and a safe flight path away from the runway.
Rotation is the smooth pitch change used near the end of the takeoff roll to establish the takeoff attitude. It leads directly into lift-off rather than forming a separate stage of the maneuver.
Takeoff Distance and Ground Roll
Two distances are especially important when planning a takeoff: the distance the airplane travels while still on the runway and the total distance required to become airborne and clear an obstacle. They are related, but they are not the same measurement.
Takeoff ground roll is the distance traveled along the runway from the beginning of the takeoff roll until the airplane lifts off.
When the AFM/POH provides a distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle, that figure includes the ground roll plus the airborne distance required to climb to 50 feet above the takeoff surface.
Takeoff roll is a phase — ground roll is a distance
Takeoff roll describes the first phase of the takeoff maneuver. Ground roll is the measured runway distance covered during that portion of the takeoff. The terms are closely related, but they describe different things.
Calculate the distance required for today's conditions
Use the aircraft AFM/POH performance data to determine the takeoff distance for the actual weight, pressure altitude, temperature, wind, runway surface, runway slope and approved aircraft configuration.
Then compare the calculated requirement with the runway available and consider any obstacles in the departure path. Performance figures from a previous flight should never replace the calculation for the current conditions.
Use the procedures, corrections and limitations provided for the aircraft. Do not extrapolate beyond the limits of a performance chart unless the manufacturer specifically provides a method for doing so.
Takeoff Speeds: Vr, Vx and Vy
During takeoff, different speeds have different meanings. Vr is linked to rotation. Vx and Vy are climb speeds. The exact speeds depend on the airplane.
Vr tells the pilot when rotation starts. Rotation is the moment when the airplane's nose begins to rise. Lift-off happens after rotation.
Vx is the best angle-of-climb speed. It gives the greatest altitude gain over the shortest horizontal distance.
Vy is the best rate-of-climb speed. It gives the greatest altitude gain in the shortest amount of time.
Not every light airplane has a published Vr
Some light airplanes do not have a specific Vr. In that case, use the takeoff speeds and information given in the aircraft AFM/POH.
Vx gives the most altitude over the shortest horizontal distance.
Vy gives the most altitude in the shortest amount of time.
Takeoff and climb speeds are not the same for every airplane. Always check the aircraft AFM/POH.
Vx = most altitude over distance.
Vy = most altitude over time.
Before Takeoff: Runway, Wind & Safety Checks
Before entering the runway and starting the takeoff, make sure you know which runway you are using, check the wind and traffic, and make sure the departure path is clear. This is the last chance to find a problem before takeoff.
Check the runway number and direction. Make sure the runway has enough length for the takeoff and that the surface is suitable for the airplane.
Know the wind direction and speed before takeoff. Check that the wind and any crosswind or tailwind component are within the limits for the airplane and the pilot.
Look for aircraft on final approach, on the runway, crossing the runway or departing ahead of you. Do not rely only on the radio.
Check the area beyond the runway. Know the planned departure direction and be aware of obstacles, terrain and other traffic.
Look at the wind before takeoff
Use the available wind information and look at the windsock when possible. The windsock gives a quick visual indication of wind direction and strength.
Compare the wind with the runway direction before you enter the runway. Do not use the windsock alone when more accurate wind information is available.
Controlled or non-towered airport?
Listen carefully to ATC and confirm the runway you are cleared to use. Do not start the takeoff until you have received a takeoff clearance.
Listen on the appropriate frequency, check for traffic and announce your position and intentions on the CTAF before entering the runway.
This instruction allows you to enter the runway and wait. Do not begin the takeoff roll until ATC gives you a separate takeoff clearance.
Know the plan before you start
Before takeoff, review the important information for the departure. A short takeoff brief helps you know what to expect before the airplane starts moving.
Takeoff Roll — Step by Step
The takeoff roll starts when the airplane begins to accelerate along the runway. Good directional control, correct power and quick instrument checks are essential during this phase.
Align and make the final checks
Place the airplane on the runway centerline. The nosewheel should be straight and aligned with the runway.
Look far down the runway and select outside reference points that are aligned with the runway direction. Use them to help maintain the centerline.
Before Brake Release
Release the brakes if they are being held. Keep your feet on the rudder pedals without pressing the brakes.
Apply power smoothly and continuously to the takeoff setting specified for the airplane.
Use the rudder to keep the airplane straight and aligned with the runway centerline.
As speed increases, the controls become more effective. Use smaller corrections and avoid steering with the brakes.
Make quick instrument checks while keeping most of your attention outside.
Check RPM or power indication, oil pressure, temperature and other required engine indications for the airplane.
Reach rotation speed
Continue accelerating while maintaining the centerline. As speed increases, control response becomes stronger.
At the aircraft-specific rotation speed or takeoff speed, begin to raise the nosewheel and establish the takeoff attitude as described in the next section.
If the airplane does not have a published Vr, follow the takeoff procedure and speed given in the AFM/POH.
Avoid unnecessary elevator pressure during the initial roll. In a correctly trimmed nosewheel airplane, the elevator tends toward a neutral position as speed builds. Use the control position and technique specified for the airplane and the wind conditions.
If the engine indications are abnormal, the airspeed is not increasing normally, directional control is poor, or another serious problem appears while sufficient runway remains, reject the takeoff according to the aircraft procedure.
Rotation and Liftoff — Step by Step
Rotation starts at the correct aircraft-specific speed. From this point, smoothly move the airplane to the takeoff attitude and allow it to leave the runway.
Begin the rotation
At the correct rotation speed or takeoff speed, smoothly begin to raise the nose.
Use the speed given for the airplane in the AFM/POH.
Set the takeoff attitude
Raise the nose smoothly to the normal takeoff attitude.
Use the outside view and the horizon to judge the pitch attitude. Avoid raising the nose too high.
Hold the takeoff attitude and allow the airplane to leave the runway as enough lift develops. Do not force the airplane into the air.
Keep the airplane under control and maintain the runway track. Allow the airspeed to move toward the recommended climb speed.
Use a smooth rotation and the correct takeoff attitude. Pulling the nose too high can reduce airspeed and lead to poor takeoff performance.
Initial Climb — Step by Step
After liftoff, establish a stable climb while controlling airspeed, pitch and direction. Use the recommended climb speed and configuration for your airplane.
Establish the initial climb
After liftoff, hold a stable climb attitude and continue to fly the airplane smoothly away from the runway.
Use the outside horizon as your main pitch reference, then confirm the result with the airspeed indicator.
Allow the airplane to accelerate to the recommended initial climb speed.
For many light airplanes during a normal takeoff, this is Vy. Always use the speed specified in the AFM/POH.
Keep the wings controlled and use the rudder as needed to maintain coordinated flight and the desired ground track.
With high power and low airspeed, left-turning tendencies can be noticeable. Apply the rudder pressure required to keep the airplane properly coordinated.
Continue scanning outside while making quick instrument checks.
Check pitch, airspeed, engine indications and surrounding traffic without losing outside reference.
Transition and trim
After reaching a safe altitude, transition to the recommended en-route or cruise-climb configuration for the airplane.
Adjust pitch for the required climb speed and make any power or configuration changes specified in the AFM/POH or aircraft checklist.
When the climb is stable, trim the airplane to reduce control pressure.
Some training procedures use about 500 feet AGL as a point to transition from the initial climb to a cruise climb. The correct altitude, speed, power setting and configuration depend on the airplane, airport conditions and the procedure being used.
If the airspeed becomes too low, reduce the pitch attitude as needed. If it becomes too high, adjust the pitch attitude toward the correct climb speed. Use smooth corrections and keep the airplane coordinated.
Continue Your Normal Takeoff Training with Pilot Institute
Want to go further? Continue with this related Pilot Institute training lesson for additional ground-school instruction on takeoff technique and procedures.
View the Training Lesson → Paid training course. Affiliate link — StudyFlight may earn a commission from qualifying purchases at no additional cost to you.Common Takeoff Errors and Hazards
A normal takeoff can quickly become unsafe if directional control, pitch or airspeed are not managed correctly. Some hazards also come from other aircraft operating nearby.
Losing the centerline
Strong power and propeller effects can make the airplane yaw during the takeoff roll and initial climb.
Large or delayed corrections can make directional control worse.
Lifting off too early
Trying to leave the runway before the airplane has enough speed can produce high drag and poor climb performance.
An excessive nose-up attitude can also cause the airspeed to decrease after liftoff.
Holding the airplane down
Excessive forward elevator pressure can keep the airplane on the runway longer than necessary and place excessive load on the nosewheel.
It can also reduce acceleration and lead to wheelbarrowing.
Too much weight on the nosewheel
Wheelbarrowing occurs when excessive forward pressure causes too much of the airplane's weight to be carried by the nosewheel.
Directional control can become difficult because the airplane may tend to swerve or pivot around the nosewheel.
Avoid excessive forward elevator pressure and use the correct takeoff attitude. If directional control is lost or the takeoff becomes unsafe while sufficient runway remains, reject the takeoff according to the aircraft procedure.
Stay clear of wingtip vortices
An airplane produces counter-rotating wingtip vortices while its wings are producing lift.
These vortices can create a strong rolling motion for an airplane that flies through them. The hazard is especially important behind larger aircraft.
Wake vortices are generally strongest when the generating airplane is heavy, clean and slow.
Avoid the preceding aircraft's wake
Note where the preceding larger aircraft rotates. When conditions and aircraft performance permit, rotate before that point and remain above its climb path until you are clear of the wake.
Avoid a flight path that crosses below and behind the preceding aircraft.
During the takeoff roll and initial climb, keep most of your attention outside. Use quick instrument checks to confirm airspeed and engine indications, but do not stare at the airspeed indicator and lose directional control or traffic awareness.
Engine Failure After Takeoff
An engine failure shortly after liftoff leaves very little time to react. Your first priority is always the same: maintain control of the airplane and protect the airspeed.
Lower the nose immediately
After an engine failure during the initial climb, do not try to hold the climb attitude. Without power, airspeed can decrease very quickly.
Lower the nose promptly to maintain flying speed and keep the airplane coordinated.
Adjust pitch to establish the appropriate best glide speed for the airplane.
Use the airspeed specified in the AFM/POH. Do not try to stretch the glide by allowing the airplane to slow below the recommended speed.
Select a suitable landing area that you can realistically reach.
At low altitude, a landing generally ahead or slightly to one side gives more time to maintain control and prepare for touchdown.
Prepare for the landing
Fly the airplane toward the selected landing area and maintain the correct glide speed.
If altitude and time permit, complete the appropriate engine-failure and emergency checks from the aircraft checklist.
Your priorities remain aircraft control, airspeed and a controlled landing. Do not become distracted by troubleshooting when the ground is close.
Do not improvise a turn back to the runway
A low-altitude turn back can require a large change in direction while the airplane is slow and descending. Bank angle also increases the risk of an accelerated stall if airspeed and coordination are not controlled.
A turn back should only be considered when it was part of the takeoff plan and the pilot knows that the airplane has enough altitude and glide performance to complete it safely.
Your takeoff briefing should include what you will do if the engine fails during the takeoff roll, after liftoff with runway remaining, and after liftoff with no usable runway remaining. Know your aircraft's emergency procedure before every takeoff.
Normal Takeoff Review Questions
Check that you understand takeoff performance, takeoff speeds, runway control, rotation, initial climb and the main takeoff hazards. Try to answer each question before opening the answer.
These ten questions review the most important points from the complete Normal Takeoff Pre-Flight Lesson.
What are some of the main factors that affect takeoff performance?
Show Answer
These factors can change takeoff distance, acceleration and climb performance. Always use the aircraft performance data for the actual conditions.
What are the three stages of a normal takeoff?
Show Answer
Rotation occurs during the transition from the takeoff roll to liftoff. It is an action, not a separate fourth stage.
What is the difference between ground roll and total takeoff distance?
Show Answer
Ground roll is the runway distance used before the airplane becomes airborne. Total takeoff distance to clear an obstacle also includes the airborne distance needed to reach that obstacle height.
What do Vr, Vx and Vy mean?
Show Answer
Vr is associated with beginning rotation. Vx gives the greatest altitude gain over distance. Vy gives the greatest altitude gain over time. Use the speeds published for your airplane.
How does a headwind normally affect takeoff distance and the climb path over the ground?
Show Answer
A headwind reduces the groundspeed needed to reach a given airspeed. It does not by itself increase the airplane's aerodynamic rate of climb through the surrounding air.
Why should you look far down the runway and select outside reference points before the takeoff roll?
Show Answer
Looking well ahead makes it easier to detect small changes in direction and keep the airplane aligned with the runway centerline.
What should you monitor as the airplane accelerates during the takeoff roll?
Show Answer
Keep most of your attention outside while confirming that the airplane remains aligned, the airspeed is increasing and the engine indications are normal.
What can cause wheelbarrowing during takeoff?
Show Answer
Too much weight on the nosewheel can make directional control difficult and may cause the airplane to swerve.
When taking off behind a larger aircraft, how can you reduce the risk of encountering its wake?
Show Answer
Note the preceding aircraft's rotation point. When conditions and performance permit, become airborne before that point and remain above its climb path. Consider wind movement of the vortices and allow additional spacing when needed.
What is your first priority after an engine failure during the initial climb?
Show Answer
Lower the nose promptly, establish the appropriate glide speed and select a reachable landing area. Do not hold the climb attitude or improvise an aggressive low-altitude turnback.
You should be able to describe the factors that affect performance, the three stages of the takeoff, the important speeds, the takeoff roll, rotation and liftoff, initial climb, common hazards and your priorities after an engine failure.
